ii
 
BUS 325	COURSE GUIDE






BUS325
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT



Course Team	Martha Oruku (Developer/Writer) - NOUN
Dr.Abdulahi Araga (Editor) - NOUN
Dr. Mrs. Yemisi Ogunlela (HOD ADMIN FMS) - NOUN Mrs.Ihuoma Ikemba-Efughi (Coordinator) - NOUN




























iii
 
 
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA



National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL:	www.nou.edu.ng


Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria National Open University of Nigeria
First Printed 2006

Reprinted 2012

ISBN: 978-058-975-9

All Rights Reserved

Printed by Daily Graphics Limited








iv
 







CONTENTS	PAGE
Introduction	1
What You Will Learn in this Course	1
Course Aims	1
Course Objectives	1
Working through This Course	2
Course Materials	2
Study Units	2
Textbooks and References	3
Assignment File	3
Assessment	4
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)	4
Conclusion	4
 

Introduction

BUS325: Human Resource Management Principles is a one – semester course for students offering B.Sc course in Business Administration at the 300 level. It is a 3 units course consisting of 20 units. Each unit is supposed to be covered in three hours. It is a core course. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course material you will be using and how these materials would be used. It also highlights issues of timing for going through these units, and explains the activities and Tutor-marked Assignment. There are supposed to be tutorials attached to this course and taking advantage of this will bring you into contact with your tutorial facilitator which will enhance your understanding of the course.

What You Will Learn in this Course

The overall aim of this course on Human resource Management Principles is to explore and explain the management of human capital in the work place and organizations. This is done to broaden your knowledge on the issues of human resource development.
During this course you will learn about different aspect of human resource development, as job design and job analysis, training, staffing, career systems, motivation and conflict resolution and management amongst others.

Course Aims

The aim of this course as pointed out earlier is to expose the students to the concept of human resource management. This will be achieved by aiming to:

•	Introduce you to the basic concepts and principles of human resource management.
•	Compare issues relationships authority and responsibility in the organization
•	Give an insight in leadership and personnel system in the organization.
•	Explore job design and job analysis.
•	Appraise the important and function of training in any organization.
•	Have an over view of what happens in Human Resource Department of any organization.
 


Course Objectives

To achieve the aims set out above the overall course objectives? In addition each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are always included at the beginning of a unit. You are advised to refer to them as you study each unit both at the beginning and end of the unit to ensure that you check your progress and that you have done what is required of you by the unit.

Working through This Course

To complete this course you are required to read, the study units and recommended textbooks and explore more current materials on the Internet.
In this course, each unit consists of exercises or activities to test your understanding from time to time. At a point in your course, you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, is a final examination.
Below you will find listed all the components of the course, what you have to do and how you should allocate time to each unit in order to complete the course successfully on time.

Course Materials

Major components of the course are:

1.	Course Guide
2.	Study Units
3.	Further readings
4.	Activities and Tutor-marked Assignments.

Study Units

There are twenty (20) units in this course as follows:

Module1

Unit 1	Introduction to Human Resource Planning
Unit 2	Organizational Design and Personnel functions Unit 3	Job Design and Job Analysis
Unit 4	Staffing in Organization
Unit 5	Training and Staff Development
 



Module 2

Unit 1	Performance Appraisal
Unit 2	Compensation
Unit 3	Motivation
Unit 4	Career Systems
Unit 5	Leadership

Module 3

Unit 1	Communication in Human Resource Management
Unit 2	Collective Bargaining and Negotiation Unit 3	Organizational Culture and Socialization Unit 4	Management Development
Unit 5	Decision Making

Module 4

Unit 1	Ethics in the Public Service Unit 2	Discipline and Grievances Unit 3	Conflict Management
Unit 4	Separation (Tenure & Turnover)
Unit 5	Separation (Retirement)

Textbooks and References

There are no compulsory textbooks for this course. However as you go through the course, you will observe that some textbooks are recommended often. This shows that it is crucial to a number of units.

Assignment File

The major assignment required of you is a Tutor-Marked Assignment. (TMA) which you are expected to complete at the end of each unit and mail it to your tutor.

Assessment

Your assessment for this course is made up of two components

Tutor-marked Assignment	30%
Final Examination	70%
	 100%
 


The practice exercises (or activity) are not part of your final assessments, but it is important to complete all of them. If you do the practice exercises, it will facilitate your understanding of the subject matter or topic and your TMA.

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Each unit of this course has a TMA attached to it. You can only do this assignment after covering the materials and exercise in each unit. Normally the TMA are kept in a separate file. Your Tutor will mark and comment on it. Pay attention to such feedback from your Tutor and use it to improve your other assignments.

You can write the assignments by using materials from your study units and from textbooks or other sources. You should demonstrate evidence of wide reading especially from texts and other sources, something to show that you have read widely.
The assignments are in most cases essay questions. Examples from your own experience or environment are useful when you answer such questions. This allows you to apply theory to real life situations.

Conclusion

Human resources Management Principle is an interesting course. It provides you an ample opportunity to know what takes place in an individual?s life from Recruitment to separation in a work organization. It can simply be referred to as Appointment and Dismissal handbook.
 


Course Code	BUS325
Course Title	HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT



Course Team	Martha Oruku (Developer/Writer) - NOUN
Dr.Abdulahi Araga (Editor) - NOUN
Dr.(Mrs)Yemisi I. Ogunlela (HOD Administration- NOUN Mrs.Ihuoma Ikemba-Efughi(Coordinator) - NOUN










































NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
 







National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL:	www.nou.edu.ng


Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria National Open University of Nigeria First Printed 2006
Reprinted 2010

ISBN: 978-058-975-9

All Rights Reserved

Printed by Daily Graphics Limited
 


CONTENTS	PAGE
Module 1	……………………………………………................. 1	
Unit 1	Introduction to Human Resource Planning……….…	1
Unit 2	Organizational Design and Personnel Functions……. 17
Unit 3	Job Design and Job Analysis	26	
Unit 4	Staffing in Organizations	42	
Unit 5	Training and Staff Development	50	
Module 2	……………………………………………….............. 58	
Unit 1	Performance Appraisal	58	
Unit 2	Compensation	63	
Unit 3	Motivation	70	
Unit 4	Career Systems	79	
Unit 5	Leadership ……………….………………...................	82
Module 3	……………………………………………….............. 89	
Unit 1	Communication in Human Resources Management… 89
Unit 2	Collective Bargaining and Negotiation …….……	….. 97
Unit 3	Organizational Culture and Socialization ……	……. 102
Unit 4	Management Development	108	
Unit 5	Decision-Making	114	
Module 4	………………………………………………........... 119	
Unit 1	Ethics in Public Service	119	
Unit 2	Discipline and Grievances………………............	...... 123
Unit 3	Conflict Management	130	
Unit 4	Separation (Tenure and Turnover)	13	5
Unit 5	Separation (Retirement)	139	



MODULE 1

Unit 1	Introduction to Human Resource Planning
Unit 2	Organizational Design and Personnel Functions
Unit 3	Job Design and Job Analysis
Unit 4	Staffing in Organizations
Unit 5	Training and Staff Development
 


UNIT 1	INTRODUCTION	TO	HUMAN	RESOURCE PLANNING

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definitions and Terminologies
	The Human Resource, Philosophy and Procedure
	Human Resources Policies and Practice
	Historical Evolution of Human Resource Management
	Human Resources Management as a Process System
	Human Resources Management or Personnel Management
	Models of Human Resources Management
3.17	Human Resource Management: Functions
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

In this unit an attempt is made to present the basic idea about Human Resource Management. This includes the philosophy, the need for human resources in any organization and the issue of human resource planning. A student will need to understand these to be able to appreciate specific issues you will follow in subsequent units. It will include definitions and terminologies in Human Resources, functions and the difference(s) if any between Human Resources Management and Personnel Management.



2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define what Human Resource Management is
•	trace the historical evolution of Human Resource Management.
•	state models of Human Resource Management
•	advance the functions of Human Resource Management.
 



	MAIN CONTENT

	Definitions and Terminologies

Human Resource Management (HRM) is the term used to refer to the philosophy policies, procedures and practices relating to the management of people within an organization. Human Resource Management is the process of achieving the best fit between individuals, jobs, organization and the environment. It is the process of bringing people and organizations together so that the goals of each are met. According to Byan and Rue, Human Resource Management encompasses those activities designed to provide for and co-ordinate the human resources of an organization… Human resource functions refers to those tasks and duties performed in an organization to provide for and co-ordinate the human resources.

To Wancevide and Gluecle, Human Resources Management is the function performed in organizations that facilitates the most effective use of people (employees) to achieve organizational and individual goals.

Thus Human Resources Management focuses on action, rather than on record keeping, written procedure or rules. It emphasizes the solution of employment problems to help achieve organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfaction which means that Human Resources Management is action-oriented.

It is also individually-oriented. Human Resources Management considered each employee as an individual and offers services and programmes to meet the individual needs.

Human Resources Management is future-oriented. Effective Human Resources Management is concerned with helping an organization achieve its objectives in the future by providing for competent, well- motivated employees.

Features of Human Resources Management.
In all these definitions the emphasis is clearly on integration of individual and organizational objectives so as to attain effectiveness. On the basis of these definitions some basic facts of Human Resources Management emerges.

Human Resource is concerned with employees both as individuals and as a group in attaining g goals. It is also concerned with behaviour, emotional and social aspects of personnel.
 



It is concerned with the development of human resources, knowledge, capability, skill, potentialities and attaining and achieving employees- goals, including job satisfaction.

•	Human Resources Management pervades the organization. Every person in an organization is involved with personnel decisions.


•	It is concerned with managing people at work. It covers all types of personnel. Personnel work may take different shape and form at each level in the organizational hierarchy but the basic objectives, achieving organizational effectiveness through effective and efficient utilization of human resources remains the same. It is basically a method of developing potentials of employees so that they get maximum satisfaction of their work and give their best efforts to the organization.

•	Human Resources Management is a continuous function. It cannot be practiced only one hour each day a week. It requires a constant alertness and awareness of human relations and their importance in everyday organization.

•	Human Resources Management is conscious of its social obligations towards society in general and to employee in particular.

Importance of Human Resources Management

Human resources, along with financial and material resources contribute to the production of goods and services in an organization. Physical and monetary resources by themselves cannot improve efficiency or contribute to an increased rate of return on investment. It is through the combined and concerted efforts of people that monetary or material resources are harnessed to achieve organizational goals. But these efforts, attitudes and skills have to be sharpened from time to time to optimise the effectiveness of human resources and to enable them to meet great challenges. This is where Human Resources Management plays a crucial role. It helps the organization in multi-farious ways.

(i)	Good Human resource practice can help in attracting and retaining the best people in an organization. Planning alerts the company to the types of people it will need in the short, medium and long-run.
 


(ii)	It appropriates recruitment and selection activities, identify the best people for available jobs and make sure they are placed in suitable position.

(iii)	Performance appraisals and training develop individuals who need skills, knowledge and attitudes different from those they currently possess.

(iv)	Good human resources practice can also motivate organizational members to do outstanding work

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain the concept of Human Resources Management

	The Human Resource Philosophy and Procedure

The human resource philosophy refers to the intention and belief to treat the human elements in the production process not as an instrument of work but as a resource that could be used to achieve an objective and therefore the need to create an environment conducive for the supply of that resource. It is also the ideas and belief that governs the perception and actions of managers towards the employees. The philosophy recognizes the logic or rationality of work. It implies the possession of a genuine workers interest. That is workers also do not only possess hands but also have hearts and minds. This philosophy is absent in most small businesses and in many third world nations. The nature of Human Resources Philosophy will to a large extent determine the human Resources Policies.

Human Resource Procedures

These serve to implement policies by prescribing the chronological sequence of steps to follow in carrying out the policies. The use of the concept “procedures” implies the existence of a pro cess which is a series of activities to be performed in sequential order. The procedure or process is a means to an end.
 


	Human Resource Polices and Practice

These serve to guide the actions required to achieve Human Resources objectives. Policies provide the means for carrying out management processes and as such, they are aid to decision-making, while Human Resources objectives stipulates what is to be done, the Human Resources policies explain how it is to be done. The Human Resources policies are informed about the Human Resources philosophy.

Human Resource Practice

This is the act of implementing the policies and procedures towards achieving Human Resources objectives. The relationship between Human Resources philosophy, Policies, Procedures and Practice could be best illustrated thus:




The Human Resources Philosophy is the base on which the other variables are built upon. Factors that shape this Human Resources Philosophy include union pressure, the desire to have a competitive advantage and public outcry.

	Historical Evolution of Human Resources Management

The existing literatures on the historical evolution of human resources management are not unanimous on the origin of the subject; writers have traced the history based on the economic development of their countries.

The American version of the origin of human resource management noted its origin in the pre-industrial era of 1400 – 1700 and ran through nine sequential stages which are: The Industrial revolution and the factory system, the emergence of managerial capitalism, industrial
 


psychology, the World War I and the emergency of personnel administration, the human relations movement the “g olden age” of industrial relations, the quality of work-life, and finally the emergency of contemporary Human Resources Management functions.

On the other hand, the British history of the evolution of human resources management has been a haphazard process which occurred in an unplanned fashion, informed by environmental forces in industry, business and society than to logical or conscious development.

Nevertheless, six major stages can be identified in the British version of the evolution of Human Resources Management.

The first phase is the WELFARE-ERA (1915 – 1920s). This was the period that the management of factions have to provide employees with welfare facilities such as canteen, medical centres and showed interest in employee?s personal well-being.

The second is Personnel Administration which covered 1930?s – 1940?s. The need to provide factory managers with personnel support services in the area of recruitment, training and record keeping here accentuated by the great depression of 1930?s

The personnel management phase I as they are in two (2) phase?s spans 1940?s – 1970?s. The first phase is between 1940?s to 1950?s. The era witnessed an enlargement of personnel functions from the mere provision of welfare and support services to other, they personnel functions from the mere provision of welfare and support services to other key personnel functions: such as appraisal compensation, and bargaining, designated welfare officials now transformed into labour matters and become involved in industrial relation practices. The environmental factor responsible for this rapid transformation from personnel administration to personnel management was, the World War II which led to the scarcity of required personnel needed to keep the factories in operation. However, it must be stated that during this period, personnel management was practiced at the tactical level.

The Personnel Management Phase II Spans (1960?s – 1 970?s). This was more developed stage of human relations in which services and functions provided in the rudimentary Stage that characterized phase one was extended into organizational and management levels. These included a systematic and scientific training, manpower planning and salary administration.
 


Concepts such as organizational development and job enrichment were integrated into the personnel function. Industrial relations became a major pre-occupation and this period witnessed production bargaining. Just as welfare officers become labour managers so did personnel managers evolve into personnel directors and consequently attended the meeting of board of directors and participated in the formulation of business policies and strategies, however, their involvement in formulating strategies was limited to the parochial and streamlined functions assigned to the personnel department.

As was the case in Personnel Management whose stages were in two phases so also was that of the Human Resources Management. The phase one of the Human Resource Management was in the 1980?s. This concept evolved from the writings of American academics. It was conceptualize to reflect the practices of hitherto personnel specialist adjusting to the work place culture and dynamic market. The focus shifted from mere management of people to an attempt by the personnel specialist to contribute to the overall growth of the firm by strategies. This goal of contributing to the growth of the organization, necessitated the rise of such concept as performance related pay and performance management system.

The Human Resources Management Phase two was in the 1990?s. During this period, the concept emphasized the virtues of team work, empowerment and continuous development in the learning organization. The role of Human Resources in total quality management also came to the forefront; new approaches were developed to such processes as culture management, reward management and management development.

With the re-structuring of organizations and its attendant consequences on staff strength, personnel directors become involved in redundancy and downsizing exercise in other to maximize the gains of the firm. The importance of being strategic was buttressed and human resources specialist became more concerned with bench marking in order to establish the best practice.

	Human Resources Management as a Process System

According to the process system analysis, “human re source system management is the systematic planning development and control of a network of interrelated process, affecting and involving all members of an organization.

Researches in behavioural sciences has opened up new opportunities for increasing the outlook of organizations. It has shown the impact of
 


effective management and development of human resources on the success and survival of business organization.

As a consequences of this discovery, managers of human capital in blue chip organizations have re-defined the role of, objective and structure of the human resources management function.

These re-structuring and re-engineering of the human resources management department and function is underscored by a singular objective i.e., the need for an integrated system, which emphasized the direct relationship between human resources management sub-systems and the business objectives of the organization. The impact of this approach is that it will facilitate the evaluation of specific human resources subsystem. In terms of how they complement and support each other. Furthermore, such a system analysis will facilitate the evaluation of human resources management programs and activities by the degree to which they contribute directly to the accomplishment of business objectives. The purpose of this section is to emphasize the system concepts in managing human resources as such as a conceptual model is useful in planning, designing, implementing and assessing the value of manpower development programs. In order to understand to process system analysis, we begin by a conceptual definition of the words process and system.

Process: A process is a series of tasks or activities to be performed in sequential order to accomplish an objective. It is also an identifiable flow of interrelated events moving towards some goals.

Perceiving human resources management as a process implies that one function or stage invariably leads to the other.

System: A system is a particular set of procedures or devices designed to manage a process in a predictable way. It is also a group of interrelated parts working together to form a whole. Therefore a system consists of various subsystems.

This perception of Human Resource as a system has a dual implication for human resource management. The implications are both MICRO and MACRO. From the Micro point of view, it implies that each of the human	resources		components	or	function	such	as	training, compensation, employees? participation and staffing are all a sub-system of the Human Resources Management system and thus contributing to the objectives. From the Macro point of view, the human resources management system becomes a subsystem of the organizational system, thus	contributing	to	organizational	goals	and	objectives.	Most importantly, the Macro and Micro sub system of human resources
 


ideally should contribute to the achievement of important organizational outcomes such as effectiveness, efficiency, development and customer satisfaction.

According to the process system analysis, Human Resource Management is the systematic planning development and control of network of interrelated process affecting and involving all members of an organization. These processes include:

-	Human Resources Planning
-	Job Design
-	Staffing
-	Training and Development
-	Performance Approach and Review
-	Compensation and Reward
-	Employees Protection and Participation
-	Organizational Improvement.

To effectively manage these processes, human resource system are planned, developed and implemented through the combined efforts of all managers and human resource specialist with the total participation of all employees in the organization.

Human Resource Management is viewed as a system with inputs from the large organization. It produces output for both the organization and individuals within it. The human resource management system has within it several sub systems.

At the beginning of every planning, performance and feedback cycle, techno forecast, market analysis, and the capabilities of the organization are combined in the corporate planning process to obtain the objectives. These objectives can be seen as the annual performance targets of the firm. The statement of organizational objectives then becomes the single major input into the human resource management system. Based on the overall objectives plans, human resource management system are made. These human resource plans consist of actions which must be taken by human resources department in order to actualize the objectives. These actions can be classified into two categorises:-

(1)	Staffing the organization

(2)	Modifying the environment within which the organization performs.

The human resource plans that are related to the manpower need of the organization are combined with the inventory of manpower resources to
 


produce the staffing plans of the organization. To accomplish this, the statement of manpower requirement must be both defined in terms of skills, training, expected performance level and other requirements. The sub systems relating to the modification of the internal environment are the organizational development systems, reward system, communication system. (Performance appraisal) and labour relations system.

The essence of the system analysis of human resource management is to ensure that plans and actions of the sub system are determined in relation to each other and to ensure that they are complementary rather overlapping and conflicting.

Further activities in any sub system are inappropriate unless they can be seen as aid to the accomplishment of organizational objectives. The contention for evaluating a sub system plan should be its contribution to the total human resource management system.

In terms of performance two types of output are produced:

(1)	The organizational output consists of goods and services produced.

(2)	The individual output consists of needs fulfilment, satisfaction, and development the output at individual level transcend into motivation and inertia for future performance, therefore, individual output act as input into organizational output.

For any human resources management system to be effective there must be a mechanism to assess and evaluate the implication of various human resource policies. This is the feedback from individual and organizational output flows into the appraisal and reporting system and from there into the analysis and control system.

Organizational objectives are compared to results as the first step in organizational appraisal. Individual objectives are also compared with individual result in the appraisal system. The appraisal is then used by managers to reward individuals appropriately in relation to their performance.

Furthermore, the appraisal are used as input into the training need analysis, this system assesses the courses of result, the strength and weaknesses of individuals. The output of this analysis becomes a feedback to manpower inventory and the internal capabilities forecast.
 


This conceptual model of process system analysis is helpful in visualizing relationship of the separate human resource sub systems and in determining logical sequences or planning and action.

		Human	Resources	Management	or	Personnel Management


These terms are often used interchangeably but it becomes imperative therefore to evaluate the difference inherent in these two concepts.

Personnel Management is defined as that which is concerned with the procurement, development, compensation, integration and maintenance of the personnel of an organization for the purpose of contributing towards the accomplishment of the organizations major goals and objectives while Human Resource Management is regarded by some personnel managers as just a set of initials or old wine in new bottles. It could indeed be more for personnel management but as usually perceived, at least, it has the value of emphasizing the importance of treating people as a key re-source, the management is the direct concern of top management as a part of strategic planning process of the enterprise. Although there is nothing new in the idea, insufficient attention has been paid to it in many organizations.

In comparison, personnel management strategies like human resources management flows from business strategies.

Both personnel management and human resources management recognizes that line managers are responsible for managing employees. Line managers refers to operational managers like treasury manager, transport managers etc, they both provide the necessary advice and support services to enable managers carry out their responsibilities.

The two concepts PM/HRM recognizes that one of their most essential function is that of matching people to their organizational needs.

The same range of selection, training management and reward are used in both cases.

The differences between personnel management and human resources management can be seen in terms of emphasis and approaches and not entirely in terms of substances.

- Personnel management is more restructured in the sense that it is focussed primarily on non-management staff while human resource management includes both management staff and non management staff.
 


The term human resources at the Macro level indicates the sum of all components like skill and creative ability possessed by all the people, whereas the term personnel even at the macro level is limited to employees of all organization.

Human resources at the organizational level include all the component resources of all employees from the rank and file to top management level, influencing the human resources of former group. Infact it includes the resources of all the people who contribute their services to the attainment of organizational goals and others who contribute their services in order to create hurdles in the attainment of organizational goals.

Furthermore, Human Resource management is more integrated in its approach and also integrated with line management activity. Personnel management on the other hand simply reacts to the outcome of line management activity. Implicit in this analysis is that the human resources specialist is pro-active in nature, he does not wait for employees to agitate before structuring for employees need and satisfaction. The personnel manager is re-active in nature, the welfare needs and satisfaction of employees are inconsequential to him.

The ideological differences between the human resource management and personnel management is that while the human resources manager subscribes to a pluralist ideology, that of the personnel is unitary in nature. The implication of this ideological disparity on the management of an organization work force are enormous. The human resource management strategy, which tries to regulate and make unions inconsequential, thus such strategy entails an attempt to perform for employees what the unions naturally would have done. On the contrary, the personnel management subscribes to Unitarians ideology, which does not tolerate the existence of unionism.

The loyalty and orientation of these two practitioners also differs. The resource manager is tilted towards both management and workers while that of personnel management is tilted towards the management.

	Models of Human Resources Management

The first type of model to be considered here is the MATCHING MODEL.

This model simply advocated that human resource systems and the organizational structure should be managed in a way that is congruent or compatible with organizational strategy.
 


The second one can simply be referred to as the Harvard Framework which is based on the belief that the problems of historical personnel management can only be solved. When general managers develop a view point of how they wish to see employees involved in and develop the enterprise, and of what human resource policies and practice may achieve those goals.

The third model of human resources developed by Walton (1985?s) from Harvard University advanced the argument that, the New Human Resource management model is composed of policies that promote mutual goals, mutual influence, mutual respect, mutual rewards, mutual responsibility. The theory that policies of mutuality will elicit commitment which in turn will yield better economic performance and greater human development. The advantages of these model includes the following:-

•	It incorporates recognition of a range of stakeholders? interest.
•	It recognizes the importance of trade-offs either explicitly or implicitly between the interest of owners and those of employees as well as between various interest groups.
•	It widens the context of human resource management to include
„employees influence”, the organization of work and the associated question of supervision style.
•	The model acknowledges a broad range of contextual influences on management?s choice of strategy suggesting a meshing of both products markets and socio-cultural logics.
•	It emphasizes strategic choice which means it is not driven by situational or environmental determinism. It is instructive to note that the approach and teaching of this text is a reflection and in consonance with the Harvard model of human resource management.

	Human Resource Management: Functions

The personnel management programme of each organization is unique. It is true that personnel activities differ from firm to firm, but certain broad functions encompasses all organizations can be listed

The HRM functions can be broadly classified into two categories:

(1)	Management
(2)	Operative
 


Management functions:

The	management	functions	of	personnel	management	involves, planning, organizing, directing and controlling.

Planning - It  is  a  pre-determined  course  of action.  Planning  is the determination of personnel programmes and changes in advance that will contribute to the organizational goals. Planning involves acquisition of human resources recruitments, selection, and training. It also involves forecasting of personnel need, changing values, attitudes and behaviour of employees and their impact on the organization.

Organising - An organization is a means to an end. It is a structure and a process by which co-operative group of human beings allocates its tasks among its members, identifies relationships and integrates its activities towards common objectives. Complex relationships exist between the specialised departments and the general departments as many top manages are seeking the advice of personnel manager. This organization establishes relationships among the employees so that they can collectively contribute to the attainment of company goals.

Directing - The basic function of HRM at any level is motivating, commanding, leading and activating people. The willing and effective co-operation of employees for the attainment of organizational goals is possible through proper direction tapping the maximum potentialities of the people is possible through motivation and command. This direction is an important managerial function in that it helps in building sound industrial and human relations besides securing employee contributions.

Co-ordination deals with the tasks of blending efforts in order to ensure a successful attainment of an objective. The personnel manager has to co-ordinate various managers at different levels as far as personnel functions are concerned

Personnel management function should also be co-ordinated with other functions of management.

Controlling - This involves checking verifying and comparing the actual with the plans and identifying deviations if any, and correcting the identified deviations. This action and operation are adjusted to pre- determined plans and standards through control.

(ii)	Operative Functions

The operative functions of personnel management are related to specific activities of personnel management e.g. Employments, developments,
 


compensation and relations. These functions have to be performed in conjunction with management functions.

- Employment - It is the first operative functions of HRM. Employment is concerned with securing and employing the people possessing required kind and level of human resources necessary to achieve the organizational objectives. It covers the functions such as job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction and internal mobility.

(i)	Job analysis is the process of study and collection of information relating to the operations and responsibilities of a specific job. This involves collection of data, information, preparation of job description, providing the guides on job design for all the operations functions of HRM.

(ii)	Human Resource Planning is the process for determining and assuming that the organization will have an adequate number of qualified persons, available at proper times, performing jobs which would meet the needs of the organization.

(iii)	Recruitment - This is the process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs in an organization

(iv)	Selection - It is the process of ascertaining the qualifications, experience, skill, knowledge of an applicant with a view to appraising his/her suitability to a job.

(v)	Placement - it is the process of assigning the selected candidate with the most suitable job. It is matching the employees? specification with job requirements.

(iv) Induction and Orientation - These are the techniques by which a new employee is rehabilitated in the changed surroundings and is introduced to the practices, policies, purposes and people of the organization.

4.0	CONCLUSION

We have seen in this unit the philosophy behind the need to lay emphasis on the human Capital development in the work place organization. As posited by a, management theorist such as McGregor (1960) that of all the resources available to a work organization, man alone can grow and develop. Growth refers to the ability of human
 


resources to acquire more knowledge and skills needed to produce goods and services. On the other hand development as used in human resources refer to the ability of labour to produce more with the same quantity of other resources.

5.0	SUMMARY

Let us recall the major things that were talked about in this unit.

Human resource is the most important factor in the production process of any organization. How it was evolved as a management systems, its? procedures, processes and its functions.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the objectives of Human Resource Management. Describe the functional and organizational role of Human Resources in achieving organizational goals.

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Armstrong, M. (1995). Personnel Management. London: Kogen.

Brody R. (2000). Effectively Managing Human Service Organization, (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publication.
 


UNIT 2	ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN AND PERSONNEL FUNCTIONS

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Designing Organizational Structure
	Steps in Designing Organizational Structure
	Relationships , Authority, Accountability
	Organization Design and Line and Staff Relationships
	Personnel Management as a Staff Function
	Staff Role in the Personnel Department
	Personnel Department in a Matrix Organization
	Qualifications and Qualities of Personnel manager
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

In this unit an attempt would be made to explain organizational design as a major aspect of Human Resources, you would be intimated with the steps in designing organizational structure, relationship, authority and responsibility, line and staff relationships, organizational design and line and staff relationships. Personnel Management as a staff function and lastly personnel department in a matrix organization.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	advance reasons for designing an organizational structure
•	enumerate steps in designing organizational structure
•	state Line and Staff relationships and Personnel Management
•	outline the role of personnel department in an organization
•	enumerate qualifications and qualities of a personnel manager.
 


	MAIN CONTENT

	Designing Organizational Structure

Organizations are economic and social entities in which a number of persons perform multi-farious tasks in order to attain common goals. Organizations are effective instruments in that they help individuals accomplish personnel objectives which they cannot achieve alone. According to Argyus, organizations are usually formed to satisfy objectives “that can best be met collectively”.

Organization is only a means to an end. It takes certain inputs from the environment and converts them into specified outputs desired by the society.	Organizations	design	deals	with	structure	aspects	of organizations. It aims at analysing role and relationships so that collective efforts can be explicitly organized to achieve specific ends. The design process leads to development of an organizational structure consisting of units and positions. There are relationships involving exercise of authority and exchange of information between these units and positions. This organization design may lead to the definition and description of a more or less formal structure. Organization design is “the process of systematic and logical grouping of activities, delegation of authority and responsibility and establishing working relationships that will enable both the company and employees to realize their mutual objectives.

	Steps in Designing Organizational Structure

The first step in organization design is analysis of present and future circumstances and environmental factors. The next stage deals with detailed planning and implementation. Organization analysis is the basis for organizational design and it is the process of defining aims, objectives, activities and structure of an enterprise. Organization analysis includes an analysis of the following aspects:

1)	External Environment -Economic, political, legal, social, etc.
2)	Overall aims and purpose of the enterprise.
3)	Objectives, specific aims or targets to be achieved.
4)	Activities that includes the assessment of work being done and what needs to be done if the company is to achieve its objectives.
5)	Decisions to be taken across horizontal and vertical dimensions.
6)	Relationships from the new point of communication.
7)	Organization structure which includes grouping of activities, span of management levels.
8)	Job structure which includes job design, job analysis, job description and job specification.
 


9)	Organization climate – Working atmosphere, co-op eration, team work, commitment, communications, creating, conflict resolution, confidence and trust.
10)	Human Resources which includes availability of human resources marked by skill, knowledge, commitment and aptitude.
11)	Management Style – Includes Laissez-Faire, demo cratic, benevolent or autocratic.

Every manager is responsible for a well – knit team so as to facilitate accomplishment, of department or unit goals. Organization structure can be designed on the basis of departmentalization and relationships. Departmentalization is the process of dividing work for an organization into	various	units	or	departments.	The	important	bases	of departmentalization are:

(i)	Functions
(ii)	Product/Service
(iii)	Territory
(iv)	Relationships
(v)	Matrix organizations.

The other important basis of organizational design is relationship. The responsibility of a Chief Executive in the overall design of total organizational relationship with a view to developing organizational structure on the basis of relationships.

	Relationships, Authority, Responsibility

The process of organization brings relationships among employees at different levels, methods, money and machines. An organization as the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing relationship, for the purpose of enabling the people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives. The relationships that exist in an organization maybe formal or informal.

Formal Organization: - This is a system of well defined jobs each bearing a definite measure of authority, responsibility and accountability. Here the manger describes organizational relationships in a written and graphic manner.

Informal Organization :- Informal organizations are known as social groups within an organization while the informal group is spontaneous the formal organization is the result of a deliberate and planned effort to pattern activities and relationships in specified way to facilitate the achievement of goals in a smooth manner.
 



SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State the steps in designing organizations.

Responsibility

-	Edwin B. Flippo defines responsibility as one?s obligation to perform the functions assigned to the best of one?s ability in accordance with directions received. Responsibility is derived from function which is the origin for relationship. Hence it is called a functional derivative. The important principles which could be observed in delegating responsibility are:
-	Absence of overlapping responsibilities
-	Functional similarity which facilitates specialization should be taken into consideration while delegating responsibility.
-	Clear identification of responsibility limits.
-	Avoidance of gaps in delegation of responsibility.
-	Unnecessary function or responsibility which does not contribute to organizational goals should be avoided.

Authority

This is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. It is the right to decide what should be done or the right thing to do. Authority is the power to command or to exact action from others in the process of discharging the delegated responsibility. Thus authority is derived from functions. The important principle of authority is that Authority should equate responsibility. In order words required amount of authority should be delegated to discharge responsibility. This principle avoids misuse of authority and at the same time helps in proper discharge of responsibility.

Accountability

This is the requirement of answerability for one?s performance. It is the opposite phase of responsibility in the sense that responsibility flows downward while accountability flows from bottom to the top for proper performance. If one has been delegated with co-equal authority and responsibility he can logically be held accountable for results. While authority is delegated from a superior to a subordinate, accountability is created. Accountability is derived from authority. The important principle of accountability is single accountability. This responsibility is functional derivative authority which is derived from responsibility, and accountability is derived from authority.
 


	Organization Design and Line and Staff Relationships

Organizations can also be structured on the basis of line and staff. Line and staff are viewed as relationships but not as departments.

Some functional mangers have line relations with other managers whilst other managers have staff relations with other managers in the same organization. But those functional managers having staff relations may have line relations, in relation to their subordinates. Thus organization structure is designed on the basis of line and staff relationship within departmental structure. It is often regarded that the personnel manager has staff relation with other managers in an organization.

Line and Staff Relationship

The relationship which the managers in an organization deal with one another maybe broadly classified into two categories: Line
and Staff

Line and Staff are often used in a way that is loose and unclear. These operating managers are frequently substituted for line and auxiliary and service departments are used for staff. Line and Staff are characteristics by relationships but not by departments. The important category of relationships is the line relationship.

Line relationship is a type of relationship existing between two managers due to delegation of authority and responsibility on giving or receiving instructions or orders. This refers to those positions of an organization which have responsibility authority and are accountable for accomplishment of primary objectives. Managers identified as line are not subject to command by staff position. In case of any disagreement between Line and Staff. The Line manager has right to make final operating decisions.

Line	authority	represents	uninterrupted	series	of	authority	and responsibility delegating down the management hierarchy.

The staff concept is probably as old as the organization itself. It is virtually impossible for Line Executives to perform all their functions and concentrate on all organizational activities. This naturally compels them to secure advance and help from specialists. The staff relationships are created thus the relationship between manager A and manager B is said to be a staff relationship.
 


Staff authority is advisory, which means that the staff, a supporting unit, recommends action or alternative actions to the Line manager.

Personnel Management as a Line Responsibility

It is unduly felt the “Personnel Management” is a L ine manager?s responsibility but a staff function. The responsibility of Line managers is to attain the goals of their respective departments by striking a harmonious balance between material, machines, money and men.

Thus the management of the four Ms which includes the management of personnel in their respective department is the responsibility of the Line management.

Since management is getting things done through people, responsibility of managing people rests with the Line  managers. Attaining overall organizational goals is the responsibility of the general manager through proper management of personnel and with the help of the different departments. The management of personnel in different departments is the responsibility of the various functional heads concerned. First level managers are also responsible for managing men in their respective sections while achieving their respective sectional goals. This personnel management is the responsibility of all Line managers. It is in this perspective that every manager is a personnel manager.

	Personnel Management as Staff Function

Since the top management believes that organizational ability depends on sound management of human resources, it provides specialized assistance to Line managers through the personnel managers. Thus the personnel managers are created for the purpose of providing assistance, advice, information to Line managers in order to relieve them from the burden of management of personnel and to allow them to concentrate on their technical operations.

Personnel managers perform various functions including; employment, training, development, wage and salary administration, motivation, grievance redressal, workers participation in management, collective bargaining, industrial relation etc.

However, responsibility for the management of personnel still exists with Line managers. The personnel management is a line management responsibility but a staff functions.
 


	Staff Role in the Personnel Department

The personnel department in relation to other departments and other managers perform the following roles:

1.	Policy Initiation and Formulation -	One	of	the important
	functions of the personnel department is the formulations of new
	personnel	policy, alteration or  modification of the existing
	personnel	policies.	He assists,	advises	and	counsels the
Managing Director regarding implications in formulation and modifications of all major or crucial policies.

2.	Advice - The major activity of the personnel department is advising counselling managers operating at various levels regarding problems, issues, clarification concerning policies or people of their departments. Advice should be based on thorough thinking analysis, research regarding pros and cons, implications during and after execution, possible measures to be taken.

3.	Service - Personnel department renders all secretarial and executive services and performs background work in all personnel activities regarding recruitment, receiving and scrutinizing applications, conducting tests, interviews, placement, induction, training, compensation management and management of industrial relations.

4.	Monitory and Control - Personnel department monitors performance and controls the line activities to the extent they are related to personnel issues. It compares the actual performance of the Line managers with the established personnel policies, procedures, programmes. It also envisages appropriate corrective action. It advises the Managing Director to modify the policies basing it on the experiences in this regard.

	Personnel Department in a Matrix Organization

In a matrix organization structure, employees have two superiors, that is they are under dual authority. One chain of command is functional and the other chain of command is project team. Hence matrix structure is referred to as a multi-command system (both vertical and horizontal dimension). Thus the team of employees of personnel department have two superiors which is the personnel manager (vertical dimension) and project manager (horizontal dimension). Both dimensions of structure are permanent and balanced with power held equally by both functional and a project manager.
 


	Qualifications and Qualities of Personnel Manager

The functions of personnel management vary from organization to organization both in nature and degree. So the qualification requirement of a personnel manager differ from organization to organization, depending on its nature, size, location. However the qualification and qualities which will be applicable in general can be summarized as follows:

(1)	Personnel Attributes - The personnel manager as in the case of any other manager must have initiative, resourcefulness, depth of perception maternal in judgement and analytical ability, freedom from bias would enable the personnel manager to take an objective view of both the management and workers. He must have the intellectual integrity. Moreover, the personnel manager should be thorough with Labour Law. An understanding of human behaviour is essential to the personnel manager. He should be familiar with human needs, wants hopes, desires, values and aspiration without which adequate motivation is impossible.

(2)	Experience and Training -	Pervious	experience	is
undoubtedly an advantage provided the experience was in an
appropriate environment and in  the same area. Training in
psychological aspects, Labour Legislations and more specifically
in personnel management and general management is an
additional benefit. Experience is  an enterprise in some other
executive capacity can also help towards an appreciation of the
general management problems and a practical approach in
	meeting personnel problems.				
(3)	Professional Attitudes: - Professional	attitude	is	more
necessary especially in the Nigerian context. The personnel managers? job, as in the case of other managers is getting professionalized. He should have patience and understanding, ability to listen before offering advice. He should have the knowledge of various disciplines like technology, engineering, management, sociology, psychology, philosophy, economics, commerce and law. He must be able to couple social justice with a warm personal interest in people which must be secured by an uncommon degree of common sense.

Qualification: - Academic qualifications prescribed for the post of personnel manager vary from industry to industry. However, the qualification prescribed in general are:
 


(a)	A degree from a recognized University.
(b)	Post-Graduate degree in Social Sciences or Sociology, Industrial Relations and Personnel Management.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has attempted to define some basic terms or concepts essential to the understanding the designing of an organizational structure. There is also an insight to necessary steps in designing organizational structure, formal and informal organizations. There is also the definition of responsibility, Authority and Accountability. The Line and Staff relationship	in	organizations	was	also	highlighted.	Personnel Management was also seen as a Line responsibility, staff role in personnel department and the qualities of a personnel manager was highlighted.

5.0	SUMMARY

In summary the unit highlighted structure, personnel management as a staff function, the role of personnel management in an organization, responsibilities within the personnel department, organization design, Line and Staff relationship.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.	“Personnel Administration is a Line responsibili ty but a staff functions”. Discuss
2.	Explain in details the significance of personnel department in the organizational structure of an industry.
3.	Explain the qualities and qualifications necessary for a personnel manager.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
th
Wendell, French (1988).	Human Resources Management, 4	ed.).


Baryoko, Simbo (1996). Human Resource Management: An Expository Approach. Lagos: Saban Publishers.
 


UNIT 3	JOB DESIGN AND JOB ANALYSIS

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction	
2.0	Objectives	
3.0	Main Content
	3.1	Approches to Job Design
		3.1.1	Job Design Process
		3.1.2	Job Design Methods
		3.1.3	Job Rotation
		3.1.4	Job Enlargement
		3.1.5	Job Enrichment
		3.1.6	Factors Affecting Job Design
	3.2	Job Analysis
		3.2.1	Techniques of Job Analysis
		3.2.2	Process of Job Analysis
		3.2.3	Sources of job Analysis Information
		3.2.4	Job Description
		3.2.5	Job Specification
		3.2.6	Job/Employee Specifications
		3.2.7	Impact of Recent Development on Job Design and
			Analysis
4.0	Conclusion	
5.0	Summary	
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading
1.0	INTRODUCTION

Job design has a great influence on productivity of any organization and the level of satisfaction. Unlike in the past when job designs were merely repetitive, today?s is more educative and creative in nature, demanding interesting, challenging jobs.

One of the most significant concerns of personnel managers in the past years have been the employee productivity and satisfaction. Personnel managers have realized that an important factor influencing these areas is the type of work handled by an employee.

Job design greatly affects how an employee feels about a job, how much authority an employee has over the work, and how much decision- making the employee has on the job and how many tasks the employee has to complete. Managers realized that job design determines their working relationship among employees themselves. Therefore job design is defined as the process of deciding on the content of a job in
 


terms of its duties and responsibilities, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in terms of techniques, systems, procedures and on the relationships that should exist between the job holder and his superiors, subordinates and colleagues. The two important goals of job design are:

(1)	To meet the organizational requirements such as higher productivity, operational efficiency, quality of products and services.

(2)	To satisfy the needs of the individual employees like interests challenge achievement and accomplishments.

Furthermore it is to integrate the need of the individual within the organizational requirements.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:-

•	Define job design and job analysis
•	State approaches to job design
•	Advance what is called the techniques of job analysis
•	Differentiate between job description, job specification and employee specification.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Approaches to Job Design

There are three important approaches to job design:-

-	Engineering Approach
-	Human Approach
-	Job Characteristic Approach

1.	Engineering Approach - This approach can be attributed to Federick W. Taylor, (1911) on the issue of the Task Idea. According to him “The work of every workman is full y planned out by the management at least on a day in advance and each man receives in most cases complete written instructions, describing in details the task which he is to accomplish….. Th is task specifies not only what is to be done but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it. The principles offered by Scientific Management to job design can be seen as follows-
 


-	Work should be scientifically studied
-	Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient
-	Employees selected for work should be matched to the demand?s of the job
-	Employees should be trained to perform the job
-	Monetary compensation should be used to reward successful performance of the job.

These principles to job design seem to be quite rational and appealing because they point toward increases in organizational performance.

Specialization and routinization over a period of time results in job incumbents? becoming experts rather quickly, leading to higher levels of output. Despite the assumed gains in efficiency, behavioural scientists have found that some job incumbents dislike specialized and routine jobs.

2.	Human Approach -The human relations approach recognized the need to design jobs which are interesting and rewarding. Hertzberg?s research popularised the notion of enhancing need satisfaction through what is called job enrichment. One widely publicized approach to job enrichment uses what is called the job characteristics model.

According to Hertzberg there are two types of factors:

(i)	Motivators like achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth.

(ii)	Hygiene Factors - Which merely maintains the employee on the job and in the organizational policies, interpersonal relations, pay and job security. This Hertzberg asserted that the job designer has to introduce hygienic factors adequately so as to
reduce dissatisfaction and build motivating factors. This Hertzberg has laid emphasis on the psychological needs of employees in designing jobs.

(iii)	Job Characteristics Approach - This approach was propounded by Hackman and Oldham which states that employees will work hard when they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work gives them satisfaction. Hence, they suggest that motivation, satisfaction and performance should be integrated in the job design. According to this approach, any job can be described in terms of core job dimensions which are defined as follows:
 


-	Skill variety - The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities so that the workers can use a number of different skills and talents.

-	Task Identity - The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

-	Task Significance - The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

-	Autonomy - The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

-	Feedback - The degree to which an individual requires direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

This approach explains that existence of core job characteristic in a job, gives the psychological satisfaction of meaningful work to the job incumbent. The characteristics of autonomy gives the job incumbent a feeling of personnel responsibility for the result and the characteristics of feedback from job which leads to psychological state of knowledge about their own performance of the job incumbent. The core job dimensions can be combined into a single predictive index called the motivating potential score.

Jobs that are high on motivating potentials must be high and lead to meaningful work and they must be high both in autonomy and feedback.

	Job Design Process

Job design process has to start from what activity needs to be done in order to achieve organizational goals. It requires the use of techniques like process planning, organizational methods and organizational analysis.

The other aspect of job design involves the technical aspect of job design which has to do with structural engineering.

	Job Design Methods

This is a scientifically structured job design which motivates the employees for higher efficiency, productivity and generates job satisfaction than the one designed on the basis of specification which
 


should be introduced in job design so that the needs of the employees for accomplishment, recognition , psychological growth can be satisfied. Personnel departments use a variety of methods to improve job rotation. Job Enlargement and Job enrichment.

	Job Rotation

This is a form of accelerated experience to the normal working situation aimed at developing existing knowledge and skills or acquiring new experiences. It also comprises of movement of employees from one job to another in order to reduce monotony by increasing variety. Job rotation on its own, do not have a prolonged motivational effect on the job holder but the mere fact of doing something new often times exact a worker especially that which is dynamic, this allows the worker to be more meticulous.

However, frequent job rotations are not advisable in view of their negative impact on the organization and the employee.

Nevertheless, job rotation may prove to be useful to managers in that it helps managers to become generalists through exposure to several different operations.

	Job Enlargement

When a job is enlarged, the tasks being performed by the same worker expands. Although it actually changes the pace of work and the operation by reallocating tasks and responsibilities, job enlargement does not increase the depth of a job. Enlarged jobs require longer training period because there are more tasks to be learnt. Worker satisfaction should increase because boredom is reduced as the job scope is expanded. However, job enlargement programmes would be successful only if workers are more satisfied with jobs which have a longer scope.

	Job Enrichment

This is an addition of a greater task to a job with increase in autonomy and responsibility. It involves increases in skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. This is also known as verified restructuring because it involves the inclusion of some responsibilities previously performed by a higher authority in the hierarchy of the organization, thus the employee need additional skills to perform the enriched job. Under job enrichment there is a conscious effort to build into jobs a higher sense of challenge and achievement.
 


An enriched job has the following characteristics:

-	It is a complete piece of work. This means that at the end of the task processes, the worker can identify a definite product emanating from his or her effort.
-	It affords the employee as much variety, decision-makings, responsibility and control as much as possible in performing the task.
-	It provides direct feedback through the work itself on how well the employee is performing his job.

	Factors Affecting Job Design

The two major factors affecting job design are the job content and intrusive motivation.

Job content is the first component of job design. This consists of a number of interrelated elements on functions. In complex jobs, individuals may carry out a variety of connected tasks with a number of functions.

The complexity in a job maybe a reflection of the number and variety of task to be carried out. The different skills or competence to be used, the range and scope of the decision that have to be made.

The second factor affecting job design is the characteristics of the task structure. Job content is the first component of job design, the job content may consists of number of interrelated elements on functions. In complex jobs, individuals may carry out a variety of connected tasks each with a number of functions. The complexity in a job maybe a reflection of the number and variety of task to be carried out, the difference skills or competence to be used, the range and scope of decision that have to be made. In certain professions the methodology of accomplishing a task is left to the discretion of the job holder, referred to as the internal structure of a task which consist of three basic elements of planning, executing and controlling.

The planning stages entails deciding on the course of action, the resources to be used, the time and methodology.

The executive stage consists of operationalizing the plan to achieve result. The controlling stage entails monitoring the progress and performance evaluation and taking of remedial action when necessary.

In the course of planning, executing and controlling the task, the job holder strive towards organizational productivity and individual
 


satisfaction by way of accomplishment, which is occasioned by the quantum of decision taken by the individual worker and the outcome of that decision.

	Job Analysis

It is from job design that a job analysis is derived. Job analysis is the process of describing and recording several job aspect including the purposes, task characteristics, task duties, behaviours and requisite skills in a given organizational setting.

It is also a systematic investigation of job content, the physical circumstances in which the job is carried out and the qualifications needed to carry out the job responsibilities. Job analysis is considered to be the foundation or building block for most human resource system. Corporate restructuring quality improvement programmes human resource planning, recruitment, selection, training, career development, performance appraisal, and compensation are among the system which is based on information derived from the job analysis.

Job Terminologies:-
Task	-	This is a distinct work activity which has an
		identifiable beginning and end.
Duty	-	Several tasks which are related by some
		sequence of event.
Position	-	A collection of tasks and duties which are
		performed by one person.
Job	-	One	or	more	positions	within	an
		organization.
Job Family	-	Several jobs of a similar nature which may
		come into direct contact with each other or
		maybespreadoutthroughoutthe
		organization performing similar functions.
Job Analysis	-	A systematic investigation into tasks, duties.
		Responsibilities of a job.
Job Specification	-	The minimum skills, education, and
		experience necessary for an individual  to
		perform a job.
 

Job Evaluation	-	The determination of the worth of a
job to an organization.	Job evaluation is usually a combination of an internal equity comparison of jobs and external job market comparison.

Job Classification	-	The grouping or categorizing of jobs on
some specified basis such as the nature of the work performed or the level of pay. Classification is often utilized as a simplified method of job analysis.

	Techniques of Job Analysis

There are several techniques that can be used for the purpose of collection of date.

-	Interviews
-	Direct observations
-	Maintenance of long records
-	Questionnaires
-	Critical incident technique

Though in practice, these techniques maybe used individually or in combination.

Interviews - There are two types of interviews which can be used for data collection for job analysis. These may be individual interviews with groups of employees who do the same job and supervisory interview with one or more superiors who are thoroughly knowledgeable about the job being analysed.
The interviewer has to collect accurate and complete data and information by creating favourable attitude among employees and supervisors. There are several basic attitudes and techniques that will serve to secure maximum of accurate and complete information. These attitudes and techniques will also help to reduce the natural suspicion of both the employee and the superiors towards the interviewer.
The purpose of such an interview is to obtain information such as
-	The job title of the holder
-	The job title of the job holder?s manager or team leader
-	Job title and numbers of people reporting to the job holder.
-	A brief description of the purpose of the job.
-	A list of the main task or duties that the job holder must carry out.
 


Direct Observations - This is particularly useful in jobs that consist primarily of observable physical activity. One approach to this method is by observing the worker on the job during a complete work cycle. The other approach is to observe and interview simultaneously.

Maintenance of Long Records - Maintenance of long records. Here the workers are asked to maintain and keep daily records or lists of activities they are doing on that day. For every activity he engages in, the employee records the activity in the list given. These techniques provide comprehensive job information and it is much useful when it is supplemented with subsequent interviews.

Questionnaires - Here job analysis questionnaires are used to secure information on job requirement relating to typical duties and tasks, tools and equipments used.

Critical Incident Technique - This technique is useful for scientific analysis and selection research. Incidents here are short examples of successful or unsuccessful job behaviour. After the collection of successful or unsuccessful job behaviour categories, these categories describe specific desired job behaviour which can be useful in recruitment and selection decisions. Furthermore, the categories also include behaviours that make the difference between effective and ineffective performance on the job. They therefore, specify precisely what kinds of performance should be appraised. It is also useful for testing the effectiveness of the job description and job specification.

	Process of Job Analysis

Jobs can be analysed through a process which consists of six basic steps. These steps consist of collection of background information, selection of job to be analysed, collection of job analysis data, developing a job description, job specification and employee specification.

-	Collection of Background Information: Background information consists of organization charts, class specifications and existing job descriptions. Organization charts show the relation of the job with other jobs in the overall organization. Class specifications describe the general requirements of the class of job to which this particular job belongs. The existing job description provides a good starting point for job analysis.

-	Selection of Representative Positions to be Analysed: It would be highly difficult and time consuming to analyse all the jobs. So, the job analysis has to select some of the representative positions in order to analyse them.
 


-	Collective of Job Analysis Date: This step involves actually analysing a job by collecting data on features of the job, required employee behaviour and human resources requirements.

-	Developing a Job Description: This step involves describing the contents of the job, in terms of functions, duties responsibilities operations. The incumbent of the job is expected to discharge the duties and responsibilities and perform the functions and operations listed in job description.

-	Developing Employee Specification: This final step involves conversion of specification of human qualities under job specification into an employee specification. Employee specification describes physical qualifications, educational qualifications, experience requirements which specify that the candidate with these qualities possess the minimum human qualities listed in the job specification.

	Sources of Job Analysis Information

Information about job analysis maybe obtained from three principal sources that include:

-	From the employees who actually perform the job.

-	From other employee such as the supervisors and foremen who watch the workers while doing a job and thereby acquire knowledge about it

-	From outside observers specially appointed to watch employees performing a job. Such outside persons are called trade job analysts. Sometimes special job reviewing committees are also established.
Job analysis provides the following information.

-	Job identification: Its title, including the code number. Significant characteristics of a job. Its location, physical setting, supervision union, jurisdiction, hazard and discomforts.

-	What the typical worker does? This includes collection of information on specific operations and tasks to be performed by the typical worker, including their relative timing and importance their simplicity, routine or complexity the responsibility for others.
 


-	Job Duties. A detailed list of duties along with the probable frequency of occurrence of each duty.

-	What materials and the equipment the worker uses.Metals, plastics, grains, yam or lathes milling machineries testers, punch presses and micrometers

-	How a job is performed. Here emphasis is on the nature of operations like lifting, handling, cleaning, washing, feeding, removing, drilling, droning, setting-up and the like.

-	Required personal attributes. This includes experience, training undertaken apprenticeship, physical strength, co-ordination or dexterity, physical demands, mental capabilities, aptitudes, social skills etc.

-	Job relationship. This includes opportunities for advancement, patterns of promotions, essential co-operation. Job analysis also provides the information relating to mental skills, working conditions, hazards, education, and vocational preparation.

	Job Description

Job description is written summaries of the basic tasks associated with a particular job. They provide the basic information about the job under the headings of the job title reporting relationship, overall purpose and principal accountabilities or main task. This may also include the nature and scope of the job. Job description is an important document which is basically descriptive in nature and contains a statement of job analysis.

As noted earlier, job description is essentially a description of the job itself and not the individual performing the job.

How to prepare a job description

-	Job Title: Every job or the job-Holder must have a title or description. The job title should reveal the functions inherent in a job. E.g. Account manager performs accounting functions.

-	Whom to Report: It is an assumption that the final authority in work-delegated organization does not rely on any individual but in the board of directors. Consequently, any employee in work organization must report to some other persons. In stating the reporting relationship of the job holder, existing network of relationship, the jobholder may have other functional heads that
 


must be ignored i.e. Job description does not state a multiple reporting relationship.

It simply identifies and states the job holder?s immediate boss.

-	Reporting to the Job-Holder: The job holder may have a number of subordinates under him, in the absence of subordinates; the numbers of employees on the same job with job holder are stated.

-	Job Purpose and Scope: Here an attempt is made to describe as precisely as possible the purpose of the job. This is to give a mental picture of the job, which distinguishes it from other jobs. The purpose of the job will naturally lead to the activities or task to be performed by the Jobholder in actualizing that purpose.

-	Description of Duties: The task required to be carried out by the job holder in accomplishing the purpose of the job are spelt out.

-	Nature and Scope: Selection of the Job Description, gives an analysis of the job holders role within the context of the organization. It highlights the significance of the task and the implication of non-performance in certain organizations. Such as that used as specimen the nature and the scope of the task is divided into three aspects.

-	Human Relations
-	Management Content,
-	Financial and Human Implications.

Job description actually ends with the financial and human implication and what follows next is job specification.

	Job Specification

This represents the final, stage in a job analysis. It is focussed or aimed at identifying the right person to perform the job as described in the job description.

Job Specification is a written statement of qualifications, traits physical and mental characteristics that an individual must possess to perform the job duties and discharge responsibilities effectively.
 


Job Specification Information

The first step in a programme of job specification is to prepare a list of all jobs in the company and where they are located. The second step is to secure and write-up information about each of the jobs in a company.

This information usually includes:

-	Physical specification
-	Mental Specification
-	Emotional and Social Specification
-	Behavioural Specification

Under physical specification we have physical features like height, weight, chest vision, hearing, etc.

For mental specification includes ability to perform, arithmetical calculations to interpret data, informational blue prints, to read electrical faults, ability to plan, reading and scientific ability, judgement, ability to concentrate, ability to handle variable factors and general intelligence and good memory.

-	Emotional and Social Specifications: These specifications are more important for the post of managers and superiors.

-	Behavioural Specifications: Behavioural specifications play an important role in selecting the candidates for higher level jobs in the organizational hierarchy. This specification seeks to describe the acts of managers rather than the traits that cause the acts. These specifications include judgements research, creativity, teaching ability etc.

	Job/Employee Specifications

Job specifications information must be corrected into employee specification information in order to know what kind of person is needed to fill the job. Employee specification is like a brand – name which spells that the candidate with a particular employee specification generally possesses the qualities specified under job specification. Employee specification information includes the following:

Age Sex
Educational Qualifications Experience
 


Physical Specification Social Background Family Background
Extra-Curricular Activities Hobbies.

Some items of employee specification information are target criticism of the employee maybe, affected if the information like social background and family background is asked and taken into consideration to judge whether a candidate possess certain traits, behavioural specifications and social specifications.

	Impact of Recent Development on Job Design and Analysis


Recent developments that have a bearing on job design and job analysis are:

Quality of Work Life (QWL)

Quality of work life means simply how good the working life is. In the search for improved productivity, manager and executives alike are discovering the importance that quality work life has to offer. QWL entails the design of work systems that enhances the working life experiences of organizational members, thereby improving commitment to a motivation for achieving organizational goals. Most often, this has been implemented through the design of jobs that afford workers more direct control over their immediate work environment. Quality of work life is the degree to which members of a work organization are able to satisfy important personal need through their experiences in the organization. It is operationalized in terms of employees? perception of their physical and psychological well-being at work. It includes virtually every major issue that labour has fought for during the last two decades.


Quality Work Life must be built around pay, employee benefits, job security, alternative work schedules occupational stress, participation and democracy in the work place.

Pay - QWL must be built around an equitable pay programme

Benefits - Since workers are now better organized, educated and more and demand more from the employees.
 


Job Security -The creation of conditions which give all employees who are doing jobs without the fear of losing it, and the creation of a system in which there are healthy working conditions.

Alternative Work schedule, with a view to tackle job boredom. Modern organizations have been experimenting with several forms of alternative work schedules as four-days work week, flexible time and part-time work.

Compressed work week is a work schedule in which a trade is made between the number of hours worked per day and the numbers of days worked per week. Managers of large manufacturing organizations report substantial savings by reducing start-up time and increasing energy conservation as well as the savings typically gained from increased employee morale where the alternative work schedule is employed. Flexible working hours or flexitime schedule gives such control to the employee.

Occupational Stress: An individual suffering from an uncomfortable amount of job related stress cannot enjoy a high quality for work life. Broadly viewed stress occurs whenever environmental forces know the bodily and mental functions of a person out of equilibrium. A person who does not feel comfortable with his work environment is what psychologists usually refer to as in a state of disequilibrium. The person who does fit with the work environment. The lack of it in person can be many: Subjective (Feeling fatigue) behavioural (accident prone) cognitive (a mental block) physiological (elevated blood pressure) organizational (higher absence rate). In an effort to combat stress, many organizations have recently instigated training programme designed to help reduce employee stress. This means changing policies, the structure, the work requirements or whatever is necessary. The second approach is to deal with stress individually or at the organizational level. Organizations can take a number of steps to reduce occupational stress. Among the possibilities are; the practice of good management, create meaningful jobs, modify organizational design, the use of shared decision-making, investigate potential stressors(s) that is the causative factors of the stress.

Work Participation: In recent times there has been a clear demand for more participation in the decision-making process at the workplace. Employees want to be involved in organizational work, involved in making decisions and implementing changes.
 


4.0	CONCLUSION

Many of the functions and activities of Human Resource Management and the behaviour and attitude of employees have their root at the interference of employees and their jobs.

5.0	SUMMARY

We have been able to see the important features of job design and job analysis and how it can contribute to efficiency in a work organization.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the utility of job specification and employee specification in selection process.

What is job design?  How is it different from job analysis?

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Banjoko, Simbo (1996). Human Resource Management: An Expository Approach. Lagos: Saban Publishers.
nd
Cowling A and Mailer. Managing Human Resources (2	ed.). London:
 


UNIT 4	STAFFING

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definitions and Terminologies
	The Recruitment Process
	Placement
	Induction
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

This is unit IV of this course. The unit familiarizes you with the concept of staffing in any organization be it public or private. It deals mainly with recruitment, selection, placement and induction.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to define:

•	recruitment and distinguish the concept of recruitment in the context of its theory from the context of its practice
•	identify and explain the various tools used in the recruitment process
•	define what staff selection is
•	explain the difference between selection and recruitment.
•	identify various forms of examination
•	know the situations demanding the use of which type of examination aspects of selection.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definitions and Terminologies

Definition of Selection: Some writer divides this process into two distinct functions. On one hand it is the process of selection to mean identification of the most suitable candidates which may entail either selection from outside the service or selection from inside the service. The process of identification involves examination and other parameters
 


established to distinguished one applicant from the other. But in all, selection is defined as a personnel function whose applicants amongst others whose function includes examinations, eliciting the qualities of peoples purpose which is to identify the most suitable have made a bid for employment. These are interviews and other parameters used for recruitments. The definition given above maintains a distinction between recruitment and selection.

Recruitment ends with the applications of those who have made a bid (submitted applications) to work in the organization (secure employment).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Device your own definition of selection and itemize elements in it which will aid your remembrance of it.

Examination and their types

Examinations: Examinations is a merit system that aids in the selection exercise. The cornerstone of the public personnel programme is the process of selection by means of competitive examinations, a process by which favouritism was to be excluded and the goal of securing the best man for every job achieved. The second one is “oth er factors being equal, examinations can spell the difference between a top-notch service and a mediocre one. No merit system worthy of the name can afford to take less than a fully professional approach to examining applicants for
employment. In today?s government, with its world- shaking responsibilities and its vast range of occupations and skills, nothing less than the best examination system is advocated for.

Criteria for Effectiveness of Examinations: There are three criteria for the effectiveness of examination as a selection tool.

The first on is objectivity. An employment examination is objective if it succeeds in identifying those characteristics of mind and skill necessary to the given purpose.

The second criterion is validity. An employment examination is valid if it measures what it purports to measure. A valid examination would rate prospective employees in exactly the same relationship to one another as they would stand after final on the job.

The third contend is reliability, which has to do with consistency with which the examination serves as a measuring instrument.
 


SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

List out the essential criteria for effective examinations and criteria and a brief description of each.

Types of Examinations

Systematic Evaluation of Education and Experience

Under this type of examination system the evaluation of education and experience is also a kind of examination which can differentiate among candidates as to their degree of fitness for a position or occupation.

Here there is the appointment of an academic personnel who is to evaluate education and experience by assigning weights to each element of education e.g. first degree 5 points.
Second class upper 2 points. Second class lower 1 point.

Done this way, whether or not the applicants appear before the employer for a further examination, a differentiation can be arrived at amongst competing candidates.

O. Glenn Stahl refers to this as “paper and pencil tests” and says they are included in examinations for which aptitudes, intelligence or concrete knowledge is prime determinants. They are most useful in cases where no experience is required. As a method, they hold greater promise of objectivity than many others.

Depending upon the use to which it is put, written test maybe divided into two – The essay and the short–end questions no rmally known as objective. The essay type, more susceptible to subjectivity than the other type is used where literary skill is being measured. The short answer type, much easier to administer once constructed and less liable to subjectivity is used in testing intelligence or specific knowledge.

Performance Tests: Performance tests is that which demands an amount of job demonstration of knowledge, especially skills that distinguishes them from other types of test is that they employ some kind of performance other than writing or speaking. The most common examples are tests for stenographer, typists, mechanics and drivers etc.

Reference Checks: According to Stahl, candidates may meet all requirements in terms of education, experience, qualifications have an excellent written test record, and skill but unsuitable for employment by reason of character, temperament, quality of performance or similar
 


factors which cannot be fully weighed in the formal testing programme. It is for this purpose that the reference checks are useful. The most common method is the making of  questionnaires to the candidate?s former employers or acquaintances.

But if the numbers of those involved is not too large, it is advisable to do the reference checks before embarking on other evaluation process. However where the number is large and mainly for management positions, such checks are done as a final or close to the final step.

Physical Examination: Physical examination is an employment step found in most businesses which can vary from a very comprehensive examination and matching of an applicant?s physical capabilities to job requirements to a simple check of general physical appearance and well- being.

The first objective of this examination is to ascertain if the applicant is physically	capable.	The	second	objective	is	to	safeguard	the organization against untimely claims that may arise through deaths of unhealthy new entrants to the organization. The third objective is to prevent communicable disease from entering the organization.

This examination is usually the last step in the selection process and the results of the examination forms the first items to be submitted by the successful candidate as he is being “documented” pr ior to induction into the organization.

	The Recruitment Process

Ibrahim Omale defines recruitment as “that process which starts from getting an applicant interested enough in a job and in a particular organization to write and application, and the process stops when his application has been received in the organization. Thus recruitment is the salesmanship which organizations do for themselves and the various jobs they have for filling”. Recruitment can furth er be defined as the effort to attract sufficient and suitable potential employees to apply for vacancies in the organization.

The Field of Recruitment: There are various areas that is open to the public as recruiting agencies.

- The Schools: These are the largest markets from which the public as well as private agencies choose their work force. Here we have the Universities and the Polytechnics.
 


Availability of potential employees in the school system thus depends on their areas of emphasis e.g. College or University of Education to recruit Teachers and Lecturers.

-	Citizenship: Ordinarily potential employees in the public sector service of a country are limited to its citizens. The area open to public agencies for recruitment is the generality of its citizenship although limitation relating to place of origin and age does limit the size of potential employees.

-	Place of Origin: It is usual, in order to prevent “monopoly” of jobs by only a particular sector of society to require that jobs be spread. In the Nigerian case it is referred to as “Quota System”. To do this requires representation by all areas concerned and therefore, even if the best potential employee comes from a given place, if it is not the turn of the place, or if the place has exhausted its share, this places a limitation on it.

-	Age Limits: Although the entire citizenry of Nigeria provides the market for potential employees, not every Nigerian is employable on the basis of age limits. Currently no one below the age of 16 maybe employed in government. Also no one above 50years maybe given a tenure job in the Civil Service. Tenure job is a concept where a particular job especially in the public service barring all other circumstances is attached a time limit.


SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Define the term “recruitment”. List out all the ar eas of recruitment open to a public agency.

The Methods of Recruitment

The traditional methods of recruitment are advertisement in Newspapers, Magazines, Pasting of Notices on Bulletin Boards of Public Buildings and other Centres of congregation and Circulating Information to individuals, organizations, and institutions that might be expected to be in touch with suitable applicants.

Recruitment Policies

This represents the organizations Code of Conduct in this area of activity. A typical policy statement for recruitment in an organization maybe as follows:
 


-	Advertise all vacancies.
-	Reply to every job applicant without the minimum of delay.
-	Aim to inform potential recruits in good faith about the basic details and job conditions of every job advertised.
-	Aim to process all applications with efficiency and courtesy.
-	Seek candidates on the basis of their qualification for the vacancy concerned.
-	Aim to ensure that every person invited for interview will be given a fair and thorough hearing.

The Organization should not:

-	Discriminate unfairly against sex, race, religion or physical disability.
-	Discriminate unfairly against applicants with a criminal record.
-	Knowingly make any false or exaggerated claims in its recruitment literature or job advertisements.

	Placement

When once the candidate reports for duty, the organization has to place him initially in that job, for which he is selected. Immediately the candidate will be trained in various related jobs during the period of probation of training. The organization generally decides the final placement after the initial training is over on the basis of candidate?s aptitude and performance during the training probation period.

Probation period generally ranges between six months and two years. If the performance is not satisfactory the organization may extend the probation or ask the candidate to quit the job. If the employees? performance during the probation period is satisfactory, his services will be regularized and he will be placed permanently on the job.

Placement is the determination of the job to which an accepted candidate is to be assigned and his assignment to that job. It is matching of what the supervisor has reason to think that can done with the job demands (job requirements). It is matching of what he imposes (in train, working conditions) and what he offers in the form of payroll, companionship with others promotional possibilities etc. It is not easy to match all the factors to the new employee who is still unknown to many. So the new employee is placed as a probationer until the trial period is over.
 


	Induction

Induction is the process of receiving and welcoming an employee when he/she first joins a company and giving him the basic information he needs to settle down quickly and happily and start work.

Introducing the new employee who is designated as a probationer to the job, job location, surroundings, organization, various employees is the final step of employment process. Some of the companies do not lay emphasis on this function as they view that this function will be automatically performed by the colleagues of the new employees. This is more so in educational institutions. This process gains more significance as the rate of turnover is higher among new employees compared to that among senior employees.

This is mainly because of the problem of adjustment and to adapt ability to the new surroundings and environment. Further, absence of information, lack of knowledge about the new environment, cultural gap, behavioural variations, different levels of technology, variations in the requirements of the job and the organization also disturb the new employee. Further induction is essential as the new comer may feel insecure, shy, nervous and disturbing. This situation leads to instability and turnover. Hence induction plays pivotal role in acquainting the new employee to the new environment, company rules and regulations.

Generally, the new comer may expect opportunities for advancement, social status and prestige, responsibility, opportunities to use special aptitudes and educational background, challenges and adventure opportunity to be creative and original and a lucrative salary. But jobs with low initial challenge inadequate feedback, inadequate performance appraisal results in reality shock. Induction is necessary to reduce reality shock.

Lecture, handbook, film, group seminars are used to impart the information to new employees about the environment of the job and the organization in order to make the new employee acquaint himself with the new surroundings.

	CONCLUSION

This unit has introduced you to how staffing is done in an organization. You can see from it the importance and separate consideration of selection and recruitment. You have also seen how important examinations are and also the various types of examination.
 


5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has been able to take a critical look of staffing in organization from recruitment to induction.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.	In your own words give and defend the definition of recruitment and selection
2.	Briefly define the following words:

-	Recruitment
-	Selection
-	Examination
-	Induction
-	Placement

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.

Omale, I. (1992).“Past Practices in Personnel Manag ement in the Nigerian Civil Service”.
Stahl, Glenn O. (1962). Public Personnel Administration (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 


UNIT 5	TRAINING AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definitions and Scope
	Training Objectives
	Need for Training
	Pre-Entry Training
	The Liberal Arts School of Thought
	The Science Oriented School of Thought
	Professionals with Administrative Training
	In-Service Training
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Training is very important personnel function to which every organization must pay special attention. The contribution of individual workers depends on what knowledge of the work they have and the skills they possess to carry out the work. These contributions will increase and improve with new knowledge and skill obtainable in most cases from training.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	identify what training is
•	state the training needs and objective of training
•	device Training Plans
•	conduct Training needs Surveys.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definitions and Scope

G.A. Cole defines training as any learning activity which is directed towards acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task. The focus of training is the job or task.
 


Scope: Scope is the quantity and quality of training. G.A. Cole gives a long list of what determines the quantity and quality of training in organizations. They are:

-	Degree of change in the external environment e.g. Technological and environment changes.
-	Degree of internal change-new processes, new markets.
-	Availability of suitable skills within the existing work force.
-	Adaptability of existing work force
-	The extent to which the organization supports the idea of internal career development.
-	The commitment of senior Management to training as an essential part of economic success.
-	The extent to which management sees training as a motivating factor in work.
-	Knowledge and skills of those responsible for carrying out the training.

The quantity and quality of training in an organization depend on its policy towards training. In some organizations, especially in the Nigerian Public Sector, training is adhoc, unplanned and haphazard. Other organizations are careful about training and are systematic about identifying training needs, then designing training activities in a rational manner to meet the needs afterwards to evaluate the results. The knowledge and skills that are or are not available in the public service as a result of training or lack of it are a function of two phenomena. The first is pre-entry training and the second is in-service training.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Define and differentiate between training and staff development.

	Training Objectives

The personnel manager formulates the following training objectives in mind:

-	To prepare the employee both new and old to meet the present as well as the changing requirements of the job and the organization.

-	To prevent obsolesce

-	To impact the new entrants the basic knowledge and skill they need for an intelligent performance of a definite job.
 


-	To prepare employees to function more effectively in their present position by exposing them to the latest concepts, information and techniques and developing the skills they will need in their particular fields.

-	To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them to occupy more responsible positions.

-	To broaden the minds of senior managers by providing them with opportunities of an interchange of experiences within and outside with a view to correcting the narrowness of outlook that arise from over-specialization.

-	To ensure smooth and efficient working of a department.

-	To ensure economical output of required quality

-	To promote individual and collective morale, a sense of responsibility co-operative attitudes and good relationship.

	Need for Training

Every organization should provide training to all employees irrespective of their qualification, skill, suitability for the job etc. Training is not something that is done once to a new employee; it is used continuously in	every	well-run	establishment.	Further,	technological	changes, automation, require up-dating the skills and knowledge. As such an organization has to retrain the old employees.

Specifically, the need for training arises due to the following reasons:

-	To match the employees specifications with the job requirements and organizational needs. An employee?s specification may not exactly suit the requirements of the job and the organization irrespective of his past experience, qualifications, skills, knowledge etc.

Thus management may find deviations between employees? present specifications and the job requirements and organizational needs. Training is needed to fill these gaps by developing and moulding the employee?s skill, knowledge, attitude, behaviour etc. tune to the time of job requirements and organizational needs.

-	Organizational viability and the transformation process. The primary goal of most of the organizations is their viability and efficiency. But the organizational viability is continuously
 


influenced by environmental pressures. If the organization does not adapt itself to the changing factors in the environment, it will loose its market share. If the organization desires to adopt these changes, employees must be trained to impact specific skills and knowledge	inorder	to	enable		them	to		contribute			to	the organization efficiency and to cope with the changing environment.		In		addition	it	provides	continuity		to	the organizational process and development, the productivity of the organization can be improved by developing the efficiency of transformation process which in turn depends on enhancement of existing level of skills and knowledge of the employees. The achievement		of	these	objectives	mostly			depends	on	the effectiveness of the human resources that the organization possesses. Employee effectiveness can be secured by proper training.

-	Technological Advances: Every organization, inorder to survive and to be effective, should adopt the latest technology i.e. Mechanization, computerization and automation. Technology alone does not guarantee success unless it is supported by people possessing requisite skills. So, organization should train the employees to enrich them in the areas of changing technical skills and knowledge from time to time.

-	Organizational complexity: With the emergence of increased mechanization and automation, manufacturing of multiple products and by products or dealing in services of diversified lines, extension of operation to various regions of the country or in overseas countries, organization of most companies has become complex.

This leads to growth in the number and kinds of employees and layers in the organizational hierarchy. This in turn creates the problems of co- ordination and integration of activities at various levels. This situation calls for training in the skills of co-ordination, integration and adaptability to the requirements of growth, diversification and expansion. Companies constantly search for opportunities to improve organizational effectives. Training is responsible for much of the planned change and effectiveness in an organization as it prepares the people to the change agents and to implement the programmes of effectiveness.

-	Change in the Job Assignment: Training	is	also	necessary when the existing employee is promoted to higher level in the organization and when there is some new job or occupation due to transfer, advanced disciplines, techniques or technology.
 


Training is also needed to:

-	Increase productivity
-	Improve quality of the product/service
-	Help a company to fulfil its future personnel needs
-	Improve organizational climate
-	Improve health and safely.
-	Prevent obsolesce
-	Effect personal growth
-	Minimise the resistance to change.

	Pre-Entry Training

Pre-entry training is the training an employee undergoes before he or she joins a service of an organization. This is done to ensure some appreciable level of pre-entry knowledge and skills to enable the new entrants to acclimatize and fit-in in his or her present position.

	The Liberal Arts School of Thought

The liberal school of thought assumes that “--- the best administration are those who have had a general liberal education which makes for flexibility of mind, imagination and breath of outlook. To a large extent, in the initial years of the Nigerian Civil Service it was guided by this school of thought. The requirement for entry into the administrative class of the Nigerian Civil Service was mainly a liberal arts degree of not lower than a second class. It was believed that this entry qualification was sufficient to take one through the career wings to the topmost position – that of a head of service withou t any other form of training.

	The Science -Oriented School of Thought

In this school of thought, it is maintained that administration is not all art but also science. This being the case, principles can be deduced from its practice which can be taught and learnt. This school believes that a student with a liberal arts degree can be given specialist training in the technicalities of administration. Such training combined with internship opportunities can qualify young people for a career in administration. This school of thought argues that it is possible to provide vocational training in administration – subjects covered in su ch a training being determined by what an administrator actually does. Such courses include Administrative Law, Budgetary Theory and Practice, Personnel Administration, Purchasing and Handling of Supplies etc. The aim of this type of training is to produce generalist.
 


But the shortcoming of this type of training is that the generalists it produces, fits only into government administrative work and nothing else.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State the characteristics of each of the schools of thought giving rise to a pre-entry training.

	Professionals with Administrative Training

This is the third school of thought whose aim is to turn the expert in one field or the other into an administrator inorder to broaden their knowledge and scope of work. The bulk of non-clerical public jobs necessarily calls for technical knowledge in some field or the other. By character, experts view issues from a narrowness of their expertise. Given some administrative training, the narrowness is minimized.

In Nigeria in recent times, the second and third school of thought are now the guide posts for administrative training. Apart from the limited number of people who opt to read Public Administration as a first degree course, quite a number come from the Social Sciences. But those in the core and Medical sciences with a diploma in Administration are likely to function more effectively as a Permanent Secretary.

	In-Service Training

In-service training starts from the application of the knowledge which an employee brings into the service on the job to which he is assigned. It continues and includes making older employees more efficient in the performance of their present duties and even to equip them to qualify for the advancement in one or more direction.

Here you shall be availed of the forms and methods of in-service training:

a) Group Training: Most of the pre-entry trainings discussed above are done in groups. However within the organization, conferences and seminars are held, field trips are undertaken. These are all training sessions. This type of training could be very profitable for both the subordinate and the supervisor. Initial induction courses where large numbers of people are involved take this format.

(b)	On –The – Job Instruction: This is the commonest form of training especially for the new entrants. The superior goes round
 


to the work desk or bench and gives instruction on how a particular work is done.

(c)	Manuals and Bulletins: These are essential study materials that are given out in the work place. Handbooks, procedure manuals or periodic bulletins, made attractive and readable are a great method of training in an organization. In Nigeria, the work of administration – the handling of personnel manuals, the most important	being	the	civil	service	rules	Handbook.	No administrator, however long he has been in service that has a table that lacks these documents. They are the administrator?s companion.

(d)	Correspondence Courses: This is an equivalent of distance learning.

(e)	Use of Audio-Visual Aids: These includes such media as still pictures, models, specimens posters, maps, charts, film strips, and motion pictures.

In Nigeria, any training undertaken whilst an employee is in-service, whether done in an institution outside the organization is regarded as an in –service training.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is in-service training? List any three (3) methods of carrying out in-service training.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has been able to define what training is. The importance and types of training, the pre-entry training, induction and placement. Such training is the source of the reservoir of knowledge and skills available in an organization before in-service training comes in to augment it and tend it to greater efficiency and to a preparation for higher duties.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has dealt with the meaning of training, as well as in-service training. It also gives the scope of training.
 


6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.	In-service Training is necessary in a work organization, why?
2.	Enumerate and explain three (3) types of training in an organization.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.
Stahl, Glenn O. (1962). Public Personnel Administration (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 


MODULE 2

Unit 1	Performance Appraisal
Unit 2	Compensation
Unit 3	Motivation
Unit 4	Career Systems
Unit 5	Leadership


UNIT 1	PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definitions and Scope
	Reasons for Appraisal
	Difficulties with Appraisal
	Appraisal Forms
	Appraisal Rating
	Appraisal Interviews
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Appraising the performance of individuals, groups and organizations is a common practice of all societies. According to G.A. Cole, employee performance appraisal is one out of only three (3) of the numerous personnel functions that evaluates the employee as individuals. In the Nigerian parlance it is known as confidential report which is done by the Manager/Supervisor without the knowledge of input by the employee being appraised and at another time as “an open per formance appraisal” system. While in some instances these appraisal processes are structured and formally sanctioned in-other instances, they are informal and integral part of the daily activities.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define the concept of performance appraisal
•	list the reasons for which appraisals are done
 

•	recognize an appraisal form
•	construct a rating scale for employee appraisal
•	conduct an appraisal interview.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definitions and Scope

Definition: Performance appraisal is a method of evaluating the behaviour of employees in a work organization which normally includes quantitative and qualitative aspects of job performance. Performance here refers to the degree of accomplishment of the tasks that make-up an individual?s job. Under performance appraisal, he evaluates not only the performance of a worker but also his potential for development.

Scope: Seen in the light of the definition above, performance appraisal has quite a number of factors in it to be considered.

Firstly, it is an appraisal of the employee?s capabilities and potential capabilities. It is a rating of an employee?s trait.

Secondly, it is an assessment of data on work done.
Therefore it is not an appraisal of an individual?s trait alone but an objective measure of work done, wrong facts and figures. Taking these two factors together performance appraisal can be seen to be concerned with assessment of both behaviour and performance.

Thirdly, it has an aim, which is to allow decision to be made in relation to training, development, promotion and increment in salary.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Define performance appraisal and list all the factors to be considered in the appraisal.

	Reasons for Appraisal

Reasons for Performance Appraisal

-	To provide information about the performance ranks based on which decisions regarding fixing of salaries, confirmation, promotion, transfers and demotions are taken.

-	Provide feedback information about the level of achievement and behaviour of subordinates. This information helps to review the
 


performance of the subordinates rectifying performance deficiencies and to set new standards of work if necessary.
-	Provide information which helps to counsel the subordinates.

-	Provide information to diagnose deficiency in employees regarding skill knowledge, determine training and development needs and to prescribe the means for employee growth.

-	Provides information for correct placement.

-	To prevent grievances and in disciplinary action.

In summary, the reasons for appraisal is to draw attention to present performance in the job inorder to:

a.	Reward people fairly
b.	To identify those with potentials for promotion or transfer.

	Difficulties with Appraisal

As noted earlier performance appraisal is an intricate and complex affair. A. G. Cole cites three difficulties concerning both accuracy and fairness of approaches.

They are:

•	The construction of the appraisal
•	The style in which the appraisal is done
•	The culture of the organization.

	The Appraisal Document

The target of appraisal can either be performance or behaviour of an employee. The instrument or document use for appraisal, usually indicates what is that is being appraised. A.G. Cole gives the characteristics of forms which seek information about the person rather than about his performance as:

(i)	Generalized criteria.
(ii)	Generalized ratings of performance
(iii)	Individual qualities rather than results
(iv)	Box ticking as a method of performance
 


Appraisal Styles

There are three basic approaches to appraisal interview, they are as follows:

(1)	Tell and Sell Approach: Herethemanagertellshis
	subordinates how he is doing, and endeavours to persuade him to
	accept what has been decided for him in terms of improvement.

(2)	Tell and Listen Approach: Where the manager tells his subordinates how he is doing, but then sits back and listens to the individual?s point of view both about the appraisal and about any follow up action required.

 
(3)	Problem -Solving aside the role of mutual reflection required action.
 
Approach: Here the manager effectively puts the judge inorder to join the subordinate in on progress and mutual discussion  about
 

	Rating Scales in Performance Appraisal

Which ever factor is being measured here – behaviou r or performance appraisers still have to measure individual performance which they do by the use of one or more scales.


Linear / Graphic Rating Scales


A	B	C	D	E
Initiative







Initiative 1		2	3	4	5
				

Low

Initiative Excellent	-	Good - Average	- Poor
 


2.	Behavioural Scales: This type of appraisal seeks information about the employee rather than his or her performance.
3.	Free written Reports: Here, the appraiser writes essay type answers to question set on the appraisal of documents.

	Appraisal Interviews

This is a face-to-face meeting the employee and his manager or supervisor. Its aim is to discuss the subject of each item on the appraisal form. This is related to open rather than the confidential appraisal method.

It has a number of objectives.

-	To evaluate the subordinates recent performance
-	To formulate job improvement plans
-	To identify problems and /or examine possible opportunities related to the job.
-	To improve superior and subordinates.
-	To provide feedback on job performance to the employee.
-	To provide rational for salary reviews
-	To identify potential performance/possibilities for promotional or transfer.
-	To identify training and development needs.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has dealt with critical sensitive personnel functions. Here appraisal rates both behaviour and performance. The role of appraisal interviews that brings about a close relationship between the super- ordinates and the subordinates.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit covers the definition, scope and the format of appraisal as well as style.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.	What is performance Appraisal?
2.	How do you get appraised in your organization?

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.
 


UNIT 2	COMPENSATION

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definitions
	Factors Determining the General Pay Level
	Economic Consideration
	Social and Ethical Consideration
	The Basis of Compensation and Reward
	Aims and Objectives of Reward Management
	The Nigerian Situation
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Compensation can be defined as the payment an employee receives for the services he/she renders. This unit shall explore, how compensation is determined, the factors that goes into the determining of salaries and wages. This unit will also look into major influences on the level of salaries and wages payable by various organizations and employees.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define what compensation is
•	explain the effects of economic, social and ethical factors on salaries and wages
•	identify reasons why some employees in organizations pay higher wages than others
•	undertake a survey on how to gather facts to be used in establishing a pay scale.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition

There is no one singular definition of the word compensation. Its meaning is deduced from its purpose and policy.
 


According to Edioni Flippo (1984) there are three purposes of employee compensation programmes, namely:

(1)	To attract capable employees to the organization.
(2)	To motivate them towards superior performance.
(3)	To retain their services over an extended period of time.

But to A. G. Cole (1997) the fourth purpose is that compensation is to reward employees for effort, loyalty, experience and achievement Then with all these, compensation can be defined as: The money being salaries and wages, which an employer pays an employee for the services rendered, and which is meant to keep him rendering such services for an extended period of time.

Wages and Salaries is the most single obligation an employer owes his employees.

The most common system by which non management employees are compensated is wages, which are based on time increments or the number of units produced. Non-management employees traditionally have been paid at an hourly or daily rate, although some are now being paid bi-weekly or monthly. Employees who are compensated on a weekly or longer schedule are paid salaries.

	Factors Determining the General Pay Level

	Economic Consideration

There is a vital relationship between the total amount spent for wages and the total production which is the total amount of goods and services produced.

Secondly, there is a vital relationship between the amounts spent on wages and the proportions of total income going to the other factors of production. As a society is economically organized, there is a practical limitation upon the height to which the general level of all compensation can go – a limitation determined first by the total productivity of industry, and second by the irreducible requirements of the various other factors in production. A wage set with due regard to these considerations is regarded as an economic wage, and private establishments paying “uneconomic” wages are likely to be forced out of business.

Government pay level is not bound by the economic factor.
 


In theory, what sets a limit to what government can pay in wages and salaries is its income and the extent to which it has to compete in the labour market. However, despite the fact that government is not bound by the economic argument, it behoves it to be guided by such arguments. If Government competes with industry pays, labour will drain into public service and production in industry will suffer. If on the other hand, it pays far below economic way, the government will find it difficult to attract labour.

	Social and Ethical Consideration

Although from an economic point of view, government is somewhat freer in setting its pay policy than most competitive private establishments, from the social and ethical stand points if it is less free to do so as it will.

This is so because the government is the body which is saddled with the responsibility of ensuring that every citizen of a country lives a life that is adjudged „adequate” and to ensure that this is a ttained by means of paying a wage that cannot go below a certain level.

The reason for the social and ethical consideration is that the bargaining power of public employees is limited as a result of the followings:

-	The absence of effective labour organization among civil servants.
-	Limitation upon the right to strike and to participate in political activities
-	And the special character of much government work, which makes it difficult for the civil servant to leave the service for private employment. The effect of all this reasons is the real bargaining position in which many public servants produces a situation conducive to arbitrary dissemination. The chief restraint against unfairness must be self-imposed on the ground that the government should be a model employer.

The social and ethical consideration is what gives rise to the idea of a long wage or standard minimum wage.

In reality, references to minimum wage is the issue whereby the government should pay its employees a salary based upon what it costs them to maintain an appropriate standard of living.

This approach to the determination of salary has nothing to do with economic consideration but purely ethical consideration. This is based on the contention that every citizen of a civilized community should be
 


assured the means to a reasonable sense of living according to the standard prevailing in the community.

	The Basis of Compensation and Reward

Compensation and reward administration as a tool of management is designed to achieve certain objectives.

-	Adequacy: Employees work not because they wish to assist the employers to maximize profit but rather because they have needs to satisfy. It is therefore the expectation of employees that the wages and salaries, they obtain from the sale of their labour, will to a large extent “adequate satisfy their needs. I f these are unsatisfied needs, this may result in negative work behaviour such as low morale and absenteeism.

-	Equity: A fair day?s job must be followed by a fair days pa y. And equal work must elicit equal pay. The compensation and reward system must be seen to be fair and consistently applied throughout the organization to the extent that people with the same competence and skills performing the same work must be equally remunerated. The reward system must be a reflection of an employee?s contribution to the organization.

-	Competition: One of the philosophical bases of reward management is to attract and retain high calibre employees. The organization exist in a competitive advantage over others both the product and labour market. In such a scheme of things, firms design their reward system in such a way to attract competent employees.

	Aims and Objectives of Reward Management

The reward system is of critical importance to the capability of an organization in obtaining its economic performance.

Thus the aims of the reward system are to:

-	Improve Individual and Organizational Performance

Here organizational performance is summation of individual performance, a reward system that is based on performance or competence is most likely to improve individual performances thus improving organizational performance.
 


-	Encourage Value Added Performance

This is aimed at achieving continuous improvement by focussing attention on areas where maximum added value can be obtained from improved performance.

-	Support Culture Management

To this end, reward system provides a means for changing the organizations culture as expressed by its values and norms for performance, innovation and risk taking. This supported by the correlation between behavioural phenomenon and social facilitation.

-	Achieve Integration

Organizational goals differ from the goals of its employees. The rider which the gap between these two sets of goals, the greater the degree of alienation, thus a good reward system strives to bridge the gap between the goals of the organization and those of its employees by ensuring that its reward system is encouraged to integrate employees into the organization. This essentially is the objective of incentives given to employees, which does not only seek to retain employees but also to integrate them into the organization.

-	Support-Managers

The reward system provides managers with the authority and skills needed to use rewards to achieve their goals. However, it is necessary that managers have a strong frame work guiding principles and procedure within which they can partake in managing rewards of their staff.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1.	Define compensation. How would you distinguish between salaries and wages.
2.	Why can?t the government not totally do without the economic consideration in fixing salaries and wages of its workers?

	The Nigerian Situation

The 1974 Udoji Commission refers on salaries and wages had a major impact in the Nigerian Public service. The work of the Public service review commission popularly known as the Udoji Commission, the salary policy was developed based upon the following premises:
 


-	Public Service Salaries: If they are to have any economic base must be generally related to salaries for comparable work in the private sector, which reflects the economy of the market.

-	In view of the super-abundance of labour at the lower level of skills, the market price of labour at these levels as reflected in private sector pay is likely to be below that which the public service should be willing to pay and below that which will support a desirable standard of living of public servants.

-	Similarly at the highest levels of management factors such as contributory pensions, security of tenure and psychic satisfaction contributes to salaries in the top management positions in the public sector being lower than those in the private sector.

-	The principle of equal pay for equal work militates against establishing regional or urban rural differentials between employees in the same grade.

-	Fringe benefits such as pensions and allowances which are quantifiable should be taken into account in comparing compensation between the public and private sectors. These are the salient and most relevant premises upon which compensation is based in Nigeria.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the topic Compensation and Reward. It has given its meaning and factors used in determining it. The most important factors being economic, social and ethical factors. The former is more relevant in the private sector, whilst the latter is more relevant in the public sector although neither sector can do without them both.

5.0	SUMMARY

Compensation is one if not the most important incentives that makes an employee offer his services to an employer.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Use the Nigerian case to discuss the considerations to go into the determination of salaries and wages.
 


7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.
Stahl, Glenn O. (1962). Public Personnel Administration (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 


UNIT 3	MOTIVATION

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	The Conventional View-Theory X
	A New Theory of Management Theory Y
	The Carrot-and- Stick Approach
	The Works of McClelland and Hertzberg
	The Works of Maslow and Victor Vroom
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

This unit deals with the mechanistic Human relations and behavioural science approach to motivation. Its major thrust is on the behaviour of the individuals in the workplace.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	distinguish between McGregor?s Theory X and Theory Y
•	discuss the Carrot-and-stick approach as a motivation Theory
•	explain the motivational work of McClelland and Hertzberg.

	MAIN CONTENT

The Motivational work of Douglas McGregor is classified under a movement called “Industrial Humanism? and it is a m ovement standing on human relations theory and that of the behavioural scientists. So close was industrial humanism movement to that of the behavioural scientist that McGregor?s? Theory Y was born as a r esult of the work of the behavioural scientist.

	The Conventional View–Theory X

The conventional conception of management?s task in harnessing human energy to organizational requirements. According to McGregor?s theory Y has three (3) propositions that are:
 


-	That management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment , people in the interest of economic ends.

-	With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts motivating them, controlling their actions modifying their behaviour to fit the needs of the organization.

-	Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive, even resistant to organizational needs. They must therefore be persuaded, punished, controlled – thei r actions must be directed. This is the task management of getting things done through other people.

Behind this theory, there are several assumptions though less explicit, but widespread, nevertheless.

-	The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible.

-	He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility prefers to be led.

-	He is inherently self-centred, indifferent to organizations needs.

-	He is by nature resistant to change

-	He is gullible, not very bright.

Conventional	organizational	structures	and	management	policies, practices and programmes reflect these assumptions.

Using these assumptions as guides, management has tried two options to control and direct human behaviour – the hard and s oft approaches. The hard approach involves coercion and threat, close supervision, and tight controls over behaviour in the modern day Nigeria, such hard approaches will be exemplified by such act as locking out late-comers to the office, getting subordinates to obtain permission every time they go out of the office and ensuring that they return at a given time, issuing query for every slip made, meting out punishments such as written warnings, cut in salaries, suspensions and reductions in ranks.

The soft approach also entails listening to suggestions on work and work procedures made by subordinates, listening to staff and waiving punishment particularly on compassionate grounds.
 


In the final analysis the soft approach is all that gives the impression of weak leadership. Both the hard and soft approaches have met with difficulties.

In the hard approach, it has been found that force breeds counterforce in form of restriction of output, antagonism, militant, unionism subtle but effective sabotage of management objectives.

The soft approach leads frequently to abdication of management to indifferent performance. People take advantage of it, constantly expecting more but giving less and less.

Some try to tread the middle course by preaching the doctrine of “firm and fair” in an attempt to take advantage of both t he hard and soft approaches.

	The New Theory of Management Theory X

McGregor says that the issue of managing people should be change, based on more adequate assumptions about human nature and human motivation. The broad dimension of such a theory is what is known as “Theory Y”.

The assumptions here include the following:

-	Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment , and people
– in the interest of economic ends.

-	Human beings by nature are not passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in the organization.

-	The motivation, the potential for developing the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behaviour towards organizational goals, are all present in people. It is the responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.

-	The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives.
 


This is a process primarily creating opportunities releasing potential, removing obstacles, encouraging growth and providing guidance, It does not involve the abdication of management, the absence of leadership, the lowering standards or the other characteristics usually associated with the soft approach under Theory X.

	The Carrot -and- Stick Approach

The Carrot-and-Stick theory of motivation according to McGregor works under certain circumstances. The means for satisfying main physiological and safety needs can be provided or withheld by management. Employment itself is such a means and so are wages, working conditions, and benefits. By these means the individual can be controlled so long as he is struggling for subsistence.

But the carrot-and-stick theory does not work at all once man has reached an adequate level of subsistence and is motivated primarily by higher needs. Management cannot provide a man with self-respect or with the satisfaction of needs for self-fulfilment. It can create such conditions that he is encouraged and enabled to seek such satisfaction for himself, or it can thwart him by failing to create these conditions. However, the creation of conditions is not in control. It is not a good device for directing behaviour. And so management finds itself in an odd position. The high standard of living created by our modern technology provides guide adequately for the satisfaction of physiological and safety needs. But by making possible the satisfaction of low level needs, management has deprived itself of the ability to use as motivators the devices on which conventional theory has taught it, to rely i.e. Rewards, promises, incentives, or threats and other coercive devices.

The philosophy of management by direction and control, regardless of whether it is hard or soft is inadequate to motivate because the human need on which this approach relies on today are unimportant motivators of behaviour. Direction and control are essentially useless in motivating people whose important needs are social or egoistic. Both the hard and soft approaches fail today because they are simply irrelevant to the situation.

People deprived of opportunities, to satisfy at work, the needs which are most important to them behave exactly as we might predict – with indolence, passive resistance to change, lack of responsibility, unreasonable demands for economic benefits.
 


	The Works of McClelland and Hertzberg

McClelland theory of motivation is a very significant motivational theory due to the research conducted on this area. This theory of motivation is based on three major motives:

-	The need for achievement and fear of failure
-	The need for power
-	The need for affiliation

Most of McClelland research and writing is based upon the need for achievement (n-arch)

The main tenet of n-arch is that “it is said that t here are two basic types of people. There are those who strive for success and are challenged by opportunity and are willing to spare no effort inorder to attain a desired goal. There are also those who do not really care very much at all whether or not they are successful. So much has been the work on these that there exists a test used in assessing the achievement of NEED in people. One such test is known as the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT).

The common characteristics of High N?Arch people are:

-	Setting goals that are moderately difficult to attain and pose a certain amount of challenge to their energy and resourcefulness. If goals are early achieved, they feel little sense of accomplishment.

-	People with high n-arch are attracted by work situations which allow them to take personal responsibility for goal achievement.
-	Concrete feedback on performance is essential for people with high n-arch, so that they know how well they are doing.

-	They are more ignited about their environments.

-	The final characteristics of individuals who have high needs for achievements are that they are more inclined to think spontaneously about how they might achieve this or that desired objective.

The work of Frederick Hertzberg is popular for propounding a two- factor theory of motivation – the hygiene factors a nd the motivator factors. Here is known for the word motivating with KITA.
 


(a)	Negative Physical Kita: This is a lateral application of the term. Hertzberg notes that Negative Physical Kita has three drawbacks. It directs, and stimulates automatically the nervous system, it is not elegant and contrasts the benevolence image of the organization which often results in negative feed back.

(b)	Negative Psychological Kita: Rather than use physical force, Psychologists had advised for the use of psychology, by rights to make the punishment more painful. Those who practice it look like saints who would not physically hurt a fly but do more damage to the „ego than physical hurt. Hertzberg concludes discussion on negative Kita by saying that if you make someone do a piece of work by kicking him, you have “motiva ted”, but have moved him to doing something. Since negative Kita does not lead to motivation, he therefore posted for positive Kita.

(C) Positive Kita: This is where a worker is motivated in a positive manner by being rewarded maybe with promotion or overseas trip.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Compare Negative Physical Kita to Negative Psychological Kita. Which of the two in your opinion and in your environment is more effective?

	The Works of Maslow and Victor Vroom

In 1943, Abraham Maslow presented a paper titled the theory of human motivation, where he stated that a person?s motivational needs could be arranged in a hierarchical order.

-	Physiological Needs: These are the basic human needs to sustain life such as food, clothing, and shelter. Until these basic needs are satisfied to the degree needed, needs for the sufficient operation of the body. But once the physiological needs have been satisfied, other levels of need become important.

-	Safety or Security Needs: These needs are essentially the desire to be free from fear of physical danger and the deprivation of basic physiological needs. There is a need for self-preservation and the concern for the future.
Here Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety.

-	Social or Affiliation Need: Social needs include the need to belong and be accepted by people, this also means belongingness, acceptance and friendship.
 


-	Esteem Needs: The esteem needs represents self-esteem and recognition from others. The satisfaction of these needs produces feelings of self confidence prestige power and control. People begin to feel that they are useful and have some effect on their environment.

-	Self - Actualization: This is the need to maximize one?s potential, whatever it maybe.


Self Actualization Esteem
Social Needs Safety Needs
Physiological Needs VROOM?s Expectancy Theory

In 1946 Victor Vroom the propounder of Expectancy theory of motivation defined motivation as a process governing choice among alternative forms of voluntary activity.

To understand the individual?s choice of voluntary activities, it is important to first appreciate certain concepts that are embedded in the expectancy theory. These concepts are:

-	Outcome: This is the result of doing a particular thing. The outcome can be first level or second level. The first level outcomes are the products of behaviour associated with doing the job such as productivity absenteeism, while the second level outcomes are the products of the first level outcome. This includes punishment and reward.

First level outcome of students includes attendance of lectures, studying and partaking in class assignment, while the second level outcome is success or failure in examination and ultimately first class or second class degree status.
 


-	Instrumentality: This is the individual?s perception or belief that the first level outcome is associated with the second level outcome. E.g. do student believe that hardwork can result in examination excellence. This belief or otherwise is what is known as instrumentality. Instrumentality ranges from 1 +0 + 1

I Instrumentality is the perception that attainment of second level outcome is certain without the first level outcome and that second level outcome is impossible with first level outcome.

+I	Instrumentality is the perception that first level outcome is necessary and sufficient for the second level outcome to occur.

O	Instrumentality is the perception that there is no linkage between first level and second level outcome.

C	VALENCE

This is the preference for second level outcome. Among the second level outcomes which to them do the student prefer. Does the student desire an A B C D E or F score in the examination.

An outcome is positively valent wheh it is preferred; it is negatively valent when the individual is indifferent to it.

D	EXPECTANCY

This refers to the individual belief concerning the likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behaviour will be followed by a particular outcome. That is an exhibited behaviour can elicit a particular outcome. Expectancy ranges from 0 to + 1

O Expectancy: This implies that there is no chance of the occurrence of an outcome after the behaviour.

+1 Expectancy:     This implies that the outcome will certainly follow the behaviour.

E-Force (M): This is equalled to motivation. The intent of expectancy theory is to assess the magnitude and direction of all the forces acting on the individual. The act associated with the greatest force is most likely to occur.

F-Ability (A):        This refers to a person?s potential for doing a job.
Ability could be physical or mental.
 


4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have been introduced to the works of most prominent theorists of motivation.

5.0	SUMMARY

Motivation was examined under Industrial humanism, behavioural sciences.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List all the characteristics of high n-Arch people and explain three (3) fully.

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Blunt, Peters (1985). Organizational Theory and Behaviours – An African Perspective. London & New York: Longman.
 


UNIT 4	CAREER SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition
	Classification of Career Systems
	Open and Closed Career
	Programme Careers and Organizational Careers
	Job – Oriented Careers and Rank in-the-Man
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

An individual is admitted into an organization or service based on his or her occupation. Within the occupation, the employee moves from one step to the other from the lowest wing to the highest. This progression is called career.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of his unit, you should be able to:

•	identify what a career is
•	list various types of career
•	explain what each type of career stands for
•	list factors used in distinguishing between one type of career from another
•	choose between careers.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition

Career is defined as the progression of an individual in a field of work throughout the employable years of his life.

In his own way Edwin B. Flippo defines career as a sequence of separate but related work activities that provides continuity, order and meaning in a person?s life. Two factors are common in the two definitions above.
 


Firstly longevity both definitions allude to life-long work experience. Secondly, continuity the first definition which is more relevant to public service related careerism to a given or choose field of work. The second definition speaks of separate, bur related work activities. Such phenomena are common in the private sector.

	Classification of Career Systems

	Open and Closed Career

An open career system permits entrance at any or all grade levels (by rank or position) in the service. In some instances and places, even this entrance is limited by entry qualifications.

But in Nigeria such limitations are flouted when an individual has “god Fathers” in high places.

A closed Career System is one which utilized the device of low maximum age limit for entrance and the filling of upper level position almost entirely from within, to keep other entrants out. A closed career system does not permit entry at the middle or upper levels. Such a system is based on the concept that substantial opportunity for advancement can be ensured only if the hierarchy is refuelled in personnel from the base, preserving upper ranks for the completion of those already in the service.

A Nigeria example that can approximate a closed career is the military. Virtually all military position are entered into at the very base.

	Programme Careers and Organizational Careers

In a large organization with numerous activities and programmes, an employee may take a job in a section or a programme, whereas another employee may take a job that permits mobility from section to section. The former is a programme career and the latter an organization career.

In the Nigeria context, what has an employee done in a particular programme is also the nature of career or occupation to which the employee belongs.

	Job-Oriented Careers and Rank in-the-Man

This classification also known as the position and personal rank concepts, is important but very complex under the position concept an individual career progression is a progression from one position of jobs,
 


sequentially in an organization. E.g. a stenographer whose jobs are sequenced into levels, senior and junior stenographer.

On the rank concept, people should be here on the basis of their broad qualification and their assignments worked out from time to time to suit the needs of the enterprise and the aptitudes of the individuals. Let their progress and recognitions be based on the length and overall quality of their service regardless of the significance of individual assignments which they periodically assume.

4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit, the concept of career which is the progression of the individual employee along a career ladder through his employable life span has to be employed. The various ways of classifying career based on two essential characteristics – One permitting t he other restricting mobility have also been discussed.

5.0	SUMMARY

This career has covered the concept from definition through to forms and methods of classification of careers.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define the concept of career and classify with explanations.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
th
Flippo, Edwin B. (1984). Personnel Management (6	ed.). New York:

Stahl, Glenn O. (1962). Public Personnel Administration (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 


UNIT 5	LEADERSHIP

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition
	Concept of Leadership and Leadership Theories
	Trait Theory
	The Group Basis of Leadership
	The Situational Approach to Leadership
	Forces in the Subordinates
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Whenever two or more people direct their efforts towards achieving a desired objective, one of the actors or participants usually exert influence on the group behaviour than the others and there is always somebody the group looks up to for direction, instruction and vision. This individual maybe classified as a leader.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define leadership
•	identify and explain a number of leadership theories
•	differentiate types of power in leadership

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition

Leadership has been defined by McKinney and Howard as “the person who can mesh divergent and conflicting forces, recognize and create opportunities, use the influence and morale basis of his or her position, and employ the minimal amount of resources to maximally achieve publicly desired ends.

The concept of leadership in Business Management has been surrounded by controversy arsing not from conceptual clarification but rather the
 


identification of who truly is a leader. Leadership is synonymous with position, authority or with the task process or the exhibition of a particular behaviour.

Leadership is multi-dimensional, the use of influence, the dimension of interpersonal relations, leadership as an agent of change and gaol accomplishment.

	Study of the Concept of Leadership

The concept of power and its application is pivotal to leadership effectiveness. Power refers to the ability to influence other people. In the context of the organization, power refers to the ability to get things done or accomplishing one?s goal through people even in the existence of resistance and opposition.

In an organizational context, leadership derive their power from the basic sources:

-	Legitimate Power: This is a type of power that resides in an office, the occupant of that office inherits and exercises the power emanating from that office, and this becomes a basis to request others to comply. Since employees are likely to resist instructions given to them by a supervisor who is acting outside or beyond their jurisdiction or authority.

Legitimate power is a power derived from position authority. The higher an employee moves up the organization hierarchy, the more power him or her exercises.

-	Reward Power: This refers to the ability of the leader to reward. Those who comply with, exhibit effort or achieve organizational goals. The presence of this power is enough to induce compliance from those employees who desire the reward.

Reward power as an instrument at the disposal of the leader is sometimes restricted in situations where reward is based on standard bargaining.

-	Coercive Power: This is the use of punishment to accomplish organizational goal. Employees comply with regulations or rules to avoid being sanctioned by the leader.

-	Referent Power: Referent Power is deduced from the personal characteristics that leaders bring to organizational setting. These characteristics of the leader appeal to others in the work setting.
 


These characteristics of the leader appeal to others in the work setting and consequently elicit the compliance.

-	Expert Power: This refers to the expertise, competence or business knowledge possessed by the leader that makes subordinates to comply, because they believe that, they can learn from the leader.


SOURCES OF POWER




SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

As a group member, you have power in the group which of the above five sources of power aptly describes your power base and how effective is it.
 


As a result of the central role played by leadership in organizational effectiveness research outcome have grouped them into three:

1)	Trait
2)	Behaviour
3)	Situation

	The Leaders Attributes (Trait Theory)

Leadership was traditionally presented in terms of the traits that the leader possessed and how they influenced the achievements of organizational goals.

A leadership trait is a physical or personality characteristics that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers. The trait theory was the dominant thought in the early 20th century; its focus was on the identification of the attributes or traits that are to be found in leaders.
The central theme is that leaders are not made but born.

Therefore there must be distinctive characteristics between the leaders and other members of the group. The trait theorists argued that individuals with a need for power prefer such professions as the military, clergy and teaching where they can truly control people.

The major characteristics of Trait Theory are as follows:

-	Drive: this is a set of characteristics that reflect a high level of effort. It included the need for achievement striving for continuous improvement, ambition, energy, tenacity and initiative.

These derived, characteristics, though in-born in some people can also be acquired by others through behavioural modification.

-	Leadership Motivation: The instinct or desire to influence people is sometimes inborn in people. From the trait theory perspective.

Leaders want to lead rather than be led. Leaders have a high view for power. A need for power induces people to attempt to influence others and sustain interest and satisfaction in the process of leadership.

-	Integrity: this is the correspondence between action, behaviour and utterances and the extent to which a leader is honest and credible. Integrity also includes the extent to which a leader displays morality and subscribes to professional ethics.
 


-	Self- Confidence: This is the ability to stir in the face of difficulties and that setbacks are only temporary restrain. Self- confidence allows a leader to stir in the midst of difficulties and obstacles, make decision despite uncertainty and instil confidence in others.

-	Knowledge of the Business: Effective leaders have a high level knowledge about their industries or business, if a leader is to lead, show way, guide or direct or move others, such leaders must be knowledgeable in that endeavour.

	Group Approach

-	Wide participation in decision-making
-	Face-to-face group interactions
-	Mutual confidence is the primary integration in the organization
-	Inter-Group and Intra-Group communication
-	Growth for members of the organization is recognized as a priority objective.

As the group approach to leadership become acceptable in theory, the leader?s role becomes primarily one of helping the group to clarify and achieve its goals. One important consequence of this change was a shift in emphasis or even displacement of organizational goals for the groups.

Another was almost unnoticed shift of leadership from executive to managerial and supervisory levels. The group approach also:

-	Produced a functional leadership that varied with group needs.

-	Recognized the latent power over time of group norms to transform externally, introduced rule like the one from the legislature.

-	Transform the leader into a co-ordinator partly leading and partly being led.

	The Situational Approach to Leadership

The situational approach maintains that the situation dictates the qualities of leadership. Rather than adjusting the organization to fit the leader, here the leader is adjusted to organizational requirements. Among the situational variables identified are:

-	Expectations of following
-	Technology associated with the task to be performed.
 


-	Pressures of schedules and the delivery environment.
-	Required degrees of interpersonal contact.
-	Various stages of organizational development

There are six – identified organization development that calls for different kinds of leadership.

-	Creation of a new organization
-	Survival of a continuing system
-	Attainment of stability
-	Gaining reputation and prestige
-	Achieving uniqueness and adaptability
-	Contributing to the society

	Forces in the Subordinates

Before deciding how to lead a certain group, the manager will also want to consider a number of forces affecting his subordinate?s behaviour. Subordinates are influenced by many personality variables. In addition, such subordinate has a set expectation about how a boss should act in relation to him. The better the manager understands these factors, the more accurately he can determine what kind of behaviour on his part will enable his subordinates to act most effectively.

The manager can allow his subordinates greater freedom of the following essential conditions exists:

-	If the subordinates have relatively high need of independence.
-	If the subordinate have a readiness to assume responsibility for decision-making
-	If they have relatively high tolerance for ambiguity.
-	If they are interested in the problem and feel that it is important.
-	If they understand and identify with the goals of the organization.
-	If they have the necessary knowledge and experience to deal with the problem.
-	If they have learnt to expect to share in decision-making.

The restructure effect of many of the forces will of course, be greatly modified by the general feeling of confidence which subordinates have in the boss where they learnt to respect and trust him, he is free to vary his behaviour. He will not be perceived as an authoritarian boss on those occasions when he makes decision by himself.
 


4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit we have dealt with leadership in the context of its traditional meaning and have also examined its study. The three most common theories in which its study is carried out have been explored i.e. the trait, group and situational approaches to the study.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit covers the definition and theories of leadership as it is traditionally conceived.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Differentiate the trait theory and situational theory approaches to leadership as a concept.

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Edwin B. Flippo. Personnel Management 6th ed.). New York: Harper.
 


MODULE 3

Unit 1	Communication in Human Resources Management
Unit 2	Collective Bargaining and Negotiation Unit 3	Organizational Culture and Socialization Unit 4	Management Development
Unit 5	Decision-Making


UNIT 1	COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition
	Models of Communication
	Organizational Communication Patterns
	Barriers to effective communication
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Management is communication. Every management function, activity or decision involves some form of direct or indirect communication. Management decisions and organizational policies are ineffective unless they are understood by those responsible for enacting or implementing them.

No aspect of Human Resource Management is as pervasive as communication. Communication provides the means of gathering and dissemination of information in all aspects of human resource management.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define communication
•	state models of communication
 

•	state and explain communication channels
•	explain various barriers to effective communication in an organization.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition

Communication is a process by which all forms of information are transferred from one person to the other.

The word communication is derived from the Latin word “Communes” which means common. The communicator which is the sender strives to establish a “Commune” with the receiver. This comm unication can be defined as the transfer of information or transmission of information and understanding through the use of common symbols. These common symbols maybe verbal or non-verbal. Communication can also be perceived as a process in which a sender and a receiver of a message interact inorder to give the message a meaning.

Scott and Ordeus defined communication as a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas reinforced by feedback, purporting to stimulate actions to accomplish organizational goals.

Communication is important in the organization for three reasons:

-	All functions of management such as planning, organizing, leading and controlling involve the act of communication, without which they cannot be performed at all.

-	Secondly, managers devote a major portion of their time to the activity of the communication.

-	Interpersonal relations and group relations are maintained and developed only through the system of communication. Communication is essential to integrate and co-ordinate the activities of the people in the organization. Without effective communication no organizational objectives can be realized.

	Models of Communication

A – Sender: This is the individual group or organization that attempts to transmit, communicate information to another individual or group or organization
 


B – The Receiver: This is the individual or group that the sender attempts to transmit information to or wishes to communicate with the sender/receiver relationship is to make the receiver behave or act in manners that is desirable to the sender.

C – Encoding: This is the translating of mental thoughts, idea or wish into a code or language that can be understood by intended receiver. In the encoding process, words, numbers, gestures, non-verbal elements such as facial expressions or pictures are used.

D – The Massage: This is the output of encoding messages may contain hidden agenda as well as trigger aggressive or emotional reaction. Messages relay what the sender has encoded.

E – Medium: The medium is the carrier of the message. It is the means by which the message is sent. Messages are sent to be received in a variety of ways. These include face-to-face communication, telephone communication, group meetings, fax, and memos.

Choosing an appropriate medium depends on many factors including the nature of the message, its intended purpose, the type of audience, proximity to the audience, time horizon for disseminating the message and personal preferences.

F – Decoding: For the process of communication to be complete, the message must be decoded so that it becomes relevant to the receiver. Decoding is the technical term for the receivers thought processes which involve interpretation. It consists of translating verbal, oral or visual aspects of a message into a form that can be interpreted.

G – Creating Meaning: The conduct model of communication assumes that meaning is transferred directly from the sender to the receiver. In contrast, the perception model is based on the belief that the receiver creates the meaning of a message in his or her mind.

A receiver?s interpretation of a message may differ from that intended by the sender, in him, the receivers act according to his own interpretation and not that of the sender.

H – Feed-Back: The receiver?s response to a message is the crux of the feedback loop. A feedback loop provides a channel for receiver?s response that enables the communicator or sender to determine whether the message has been received and has produced the intended response. At this point, the receiver becomes a sender, this new message is then decoded and interpreted, and the feedback gives the sender an idea of how accurately his message is understood.
 


I – Noise: This refers to anything that interferes with transmission and understanding of a message or all factors that distract the intended message and these factors may occur in each of the elements of communication. These factors include speech impairment poor telephone connection, illegible hand writing, physical distance etc. Managers can improve communication by reducing noise.

	Organizational Communication Patterns

What is at all true of interpersonal communication is also true of organizational communication. Here too the effective communication involves getting accurate message from one person to another. The four factors that influence the effectiveness of organizational communication are:-

-	The formal channels of communication
-	The organizations authority structure
-	Job specialization
-	Information ownership

The communication effectiveness is influenced by formal channels in two ways:

(1)	Formal channels cover the unending distance that usually occurs when the organizations develop and grows.
(2)	The formal channels inhibit the free flow of information between organizational levels, particularly in upward communication.

The authority structure in the organization also influences the effectiveness of communication. The content and accuracy of information are also affected because of the differences in authority and status.

Job specialization also affects the effectiveness of communication. Members who belong to the same group use the same jargon and understand each other better, while communication between highly differentiated groups is likely to be a problem for both. Information ownership refers to the unique knowledge and information about their jobs possessed by an individual. Of many individuals such information is a sort of power, which helps them function more effectively than others. Most people in this situation are often reluctant to share the information with others. Hence open communication is not always possible in the organization. Organizational communication takes place in variety of ways. Vertically or horizontally, vertical communication can be either downward or upward.
 


Downward Communication

This type of communication style starts at the top management level and goes down through all management levels to the least worker. This is mainly used to advise, inform, direct, instruct and evaluate subordinates. This is also used to inform the members about organizational goals and policies.

Upward Communication

Here what is happening at the lower levels is made known to the upper levels through the upward communication.


Source	Encoding	Message	Reception	Decoding	Action
		Transmission			






Fig 1.1 Communication Process

UPWARD COMMUNICATION





HORIZONTAL







VERTICAL
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
Fig 1.2
Organizational Communication Lines/Models
 


This is usually in the form of progress reports, suggestions, explanation and particularly useful for the top management to make their policies consistent with the attitudes of the people below.

Horizontal Or Diagonal Communication

Communication is said to be horizontal when it takes place between two employees working at the same level in the organizational hierarchy e.g. communication between production and marketing manager.

Horizontal communication is essential because of the fact that the department in an organization are interdependent and the co-ordination of their activities are necessary.

Informal Communication Or Grapevine

This type of communication arises out of social relationship. The management has no absolute control over this type of communication. This informal channel satisfies the communication needs of various groups in the organization. Although most of the times the information passed on this channel is false or at least inaccurate as each person may add to or subtract from the message as he desires. It should be remembered that it is a part of the managers job to have a little control over this informal communication so that he can take appropriate action to minimise it especially the adverse effect of this channel.

	Barriers to Effective Communication

There are certain factors that impede the proper flow of communication. All those factors that adversely affect the effectiveness of communication maybe called barriers to communication.

These barriers are classified into:-

1.	External
2.	Emotional or Psychological
3.	Organizational
4.	Personal

1.	External Barriers

These manifest in the following ways:

-	Semantic Barriers: This is due to linguistic barriers between the sender and the receiver. These barriers arise at the stage of encoding or decoding in the process of communication.
 


-	Badly Expressed Message: Here if the message is not expressed clearly and precisely and wrong words used, they may not send the right message.

-	Faulty Translation: Managers are often required to translate the messages into a form, suitable to their superiors or subordinates. Unless one has good linguistic capacity, he cannot do his job well.

-	Specialist Language: Technical personnel and other experts are fond of using technical jargon which others outside their group fail to understand.

2.	Emotional or Psychological Barriers

-	Premature evaluation: Here people often jump into conclusion even before the message is completely communicated. This discourages the sender and may even give him a feeling of utility.

-	Existence of pre-concerned notions.
-	Inattention due to lack of interest.
-	Distrust in the communicator.
-	Fears -	(i)	of misinterpretation
(ii)	of distortion
(iii)	of exposure to criticism
(iv)	deliberate information hold back
(v)	Poor retention by the receiver
(vi)	defensive behaviour.

Employees have a tendency to become defensive when they feel they are being threatened. In such circumstances they tend to stop listening to the sender?s message.

3.	Organizational Barriers

Here organizational policies, rules and regulations, status relationships also affect the effectiveness of communication.

4.	Personal Barriers

Personal barriers can again be classified into two types

-	Barriers in superiors
-	Barriers in subordinate
 


Under barriers in supervisions, attitude of supervisors matters a lot. If the superior has an unfavourable attitude to the subordinate?s act of giving message, adequate information cannot flow from the subordinate to the superior; lack of confidence in subordinates, lack of awareness of importance of communication, insistence on proper channel.

Under barriers in subordinates we have:

-	Unwillingness to communicate
-	Lack of proper incentives.

4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit we dealt with the issue of communication which is a management function. We were able to define communication process or models of communication and barriers to communication.

5.0	SUMMARY

It has been seen that communication is a management function and that no organization can function, without communication. Communication is necessary not only in an organizational set-up but also in the life of an individual.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.	Define communication and the process of communication.
2.	What can lead to communication distortion?

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Drunker, P. F. (1997). Management Cases. London: Heinemann.

Rao, Subba (1997). Personnel and Human Resource Management.
Delhi-India: Shubba Offset Printing Press.
 


UNIT 2	COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND NEGOTIATION

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Processes of Collective Bargaining
	Strategy of Bargaining
	Union Bargaining Pressures
	Strikes
	Picketing
	Boycotts
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

The concept of employee?s protection and participation is relatively new in the study of human resources management. However, the practice is much older that human resource management. Collective bargaining has to do with employee?s protection and the role of the trade unions.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define collective bargaining
•	identify the process of collective bargaining
•	identify and be able to apply the strategy of bargaining.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

According to Edwin B. Fllipo, collective bargaining is a process in which representatives of two groups meet and attempt to negotiate an agreement that specifies the nature of future relationships between the two.
 


According to Flippo, subjects where bargaining is required by law the employer is no longer free to make and enforce unilateral decision. And on matters not so legally mandated, the employer is influenced by such risks as strikes, slowdown and with holding of co-operative efforts.

	Processes of Collective Bargaining The Pre-Negotiation Phase
This phase has to with the assemblage of data and facts and figures on
wages, hours, pensions, and vacations for use in the negotiation of the next contract. Negotiation is defined as a process of solving conflict between two or more parties whereby the belligerent parties modify their demand to allow for a mutually acceptable compromise.

In industrial relations, negotiation takes place between the representatives of the means of production which is the management and the representative of the employees, the union member.

The negotiation process involves three basic elements. There are:

(a)	Social relations between those individual and groups, which are a party to collective bargaining.

(b)	The representatives and communication functions.

(c)	The power relations between the parties to the negotiation.

In every negotiation, there is a negotiation continuum, which shows the range of bargaining of both union and management and the bargaining parameter. Normally, negotiations aim at a compromise within the bargaining parameter.

Negotiating Teams

On the side of the employer, it is usual to have a team or a committee. This broadens the base of participation. It is also usual to have a legal representative. Normally the Chief Executive of the organization is usually not included in the negotiation team.

On the side of the union, they usually include high officers of the union, some employees of the organization and “representat ive of the international union”. Most of the union bargainers are full time specialists in the art of bargaining and negotiation with various management.
 


	Strategy of Bargaining

Because of the considerable importance of the labour agreement, it is essential for management to plan its strategy and tactics carefully in preparation for the bargaining sessions. Strategy involves mapping out the plan and deciding on the policy which will guide the organization in the bargaining process. The union on its own part also does same, which is mapping out plans and deciding on guiding principles.

Before the management enters the conference room for bargaining its negotiators must agree on the maximum concessions that can be granted to the anticipated demands of the union. Often the union files its demands in a advance of the meeting. The company must know the points, above which it will not, prefer to risk a strike instead.

In collective bargaining, organizational strategic plan could include the following:

-	Avoidance of mutual agreement clauses that would prevent management action. Management should retain the right to manage the firm, subject to challenges by the union under contract.

-	Keep one?s eyes on the entire package. A work procedure concession may eventually cost more than a substantive pay.

-	Keep the company personnel informed of the progress of bargaining sessions. Supervisors must be involved and union members are also employees.

-	Develop agreements where the union leaders can always maintain that they “won”. Union leaders have to win for red uction on their record and management can move frequently afford the appearance of having “lost”.

-	Determine the point at which the organization is willing for the union to go on strike. Management must adopt a basic attitude of not being afraid of strike.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is Collective Bargaining? Why is it needed in any organization?
 


	Union Bargaining Pressures

Labour unions have strategies and tactics which they employ in extracting greater concessions from management.

These are strikes, picketing, boycotts etc:

	Strikes

This is a concerted and temporary withholding of employee services from the employer for the purpose of exacting greater concessions in the employment relationship than the employer is willing to grant at the bargaining table.

There are various types of strikes:

-	Recognition Strike: This is meant to enforce the employer to recognize and deal with the union.

-	Economic Strike: this is based on the demand for increased wages.

-	Wild Cat Strike: this is the quick, sudden and unauthorized types of work stoppages. Such strikes are not approved by union leadership and are contrary to labour agreement. This is a form of fractional bargaining.

-	Sit-Down Strike: This is when the employees strike but remains in their jobs in the organization such strikes are illegal strike. They constitute an invasion of private property.

	Picketing

Picketing is the patrolling of  strikers in front of  the entrance of  an organization?s premises inorder to ensure total work stoppage.

	Boycotts

This is a form of work stoppage that may involve many organizations in the same line of business to force the concerned organization to concede to the demands of the union.

An example is influence of Company B, and C, to refuse to deal with Company A.
 


4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the concept of collective bargaining. It has provided you a definition of it and given you the processes of collective bargaining. It has given the preparation necessary on the part of the management and union which leads to successful bargaining which is underscored by a process of giving and taking the pressures available to be applied by union which give necessary “bite” to bargaining, particularly strikes.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has taken a look at one of the most important functions of trade unions which is collective bargaining.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the following concepts

-	Economic Strike
-	Wildcat Strike
-	Boycott

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Emiola, Akin (1985). Public Servant and the Law. University of Ife Press.
th
Flippo, Edwin (1984). Personnel Management (6	ed.). New  York:
 


UNIT 3	ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	The Concept of Culture
	The Concept of Organizational Culture
	Characteristics of Organizational Culture
	Functions of Organizational Culture
	Socialization and Culture
	Socialization and Mentoring
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Contemporary Business Enterprises are perceived as living and social entities and therefore like a human being, organizations have life, do interact and by implication have a culture.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	state the concept of organizational culture
•	explain the characteristics of organizational culture
•	analyze the functions of organizational culture
•	explain socialization and monitoring.

	MAIN CONTENT

	The Concept of Culture

Culture has been seen as the means by which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about attitudes toward life. Culture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human being interpret their experience and guide their action. Culture is mainly man-made, confirmed by others, conventionalized and passed for younger people or newcomers to learn. It provides people with a meaningful context in
 


which to meet, to the themselves and the outer world. Culture can be distinguished from one environment to another. Culture also comes in layers.

-	the outer layer
-	the middle layer
-	the core layer.

The Outer Layer

This presents itself as an explicit product. This is the observable reality of the language, food, monuments, mode of dressing. The outer layer of culture is the symbols of a deeper level of culture and it is this symbolic and observable level that prejudices start from.

The Middle Layer: Norms and Values

Norms are the mutual sense a group has what is “rig ht” and “wrong”. Values are the definition of what is good or bad and therefore closely related to the ideas shared by the group.

The Core Layer

This has to do with Assumption about existence

The basic value people store for is SURVIVAL. The core layer of culture refers to the solving of daily problems in such a way that these problems disappear from our consciousness.

This specific organizational culture is nothing but the way in which groups have organized themselves over the years to solve problems and challenges presented to them.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Define Culture

	The Concept of Organizational Culture

Culture is part of organizational life that influences the behaviour attitudes and overall effectiveness of employees.

Edgar Schun (1985, P9) defines organizational culture as “a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problem of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valuable and
 


therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to these problems.

These definitions highlight two important characteristics of organizational culture:

(1)	Organizational culture influences people?s behaviour at work.

(2)	Organizational culture operates on two levels, which vary in terms of outward visibility and resistance to change. At the less visible level, culture reflects the values, shared among organizational members, these values tend to persist over time and are more resistance to change. At the more visible level, culture represents the normative behaviour patterns accepted by members of the organization. These patterns of behaviour are passed from one generation to another through the process of socialization. At these levels, culture is susceptible to change. It is instructive to note that each level of culture influences the other.

	Characteristics of Organizational Culture

-	Culture helps in the shaping the behaviour of both an individual and an organization.

-	Interaction and Socialization among organizational members is inevitable, when people interact, they use common language, terminology and details that are related to defence and demeanour.

-	Norms, these are standards of behaviour that exists within the organization.

-	Culture dominates values. These are the major values the organization advocates and expect the participants to share.

-	The philosophy of the organization is the policies that set forth the organizations beliefs about how employees or customers are treated.

-	Rules are the strict guidelines related to getting along in the organization. New entrants into the organization are to be inducted into these rules and regulation. They (rules) determine the behaviour of the participants and where behaviour that does not conform to their rules may be termed a “misnome r”.
 


-	Organizational Climate: This is the overall feeling that is conveyed by the physical layout, the way the participants interact and the way members of the group conduct themselves with the customers. Organizational climate could be friendly or aggressive.

	Functions of Organizational Culture

Organizational culture first and foremost gives members an organizational identity. This allows members of staff a higher sense of commitment. It helps them to identify with organizational goals and objectives.

Secondly organizational climate facilitates collective commitment. Commitment here is a series of identification, loyalty and involvement expressed by employees towards the organization. Where this exists the tendency is that there will be a low rate of turn over.

Thirdly it promotes social system stability. This is the extent to which the work environment is perceived as positive and reinforcing with conflict and change managed effectively.

	Socialization and Culture

Organizational Socialization is the process by which a person learns the values and norms and required behaviour that permits participation as a member of the organization. The socialization process of an organization is the key mechanism used by organizations to embed the organizational culture i.e. a transmittal of values, assumptions and attitudes from the older to the newer employees.

The process of socialization goes on throughout an employee?s career in the organization. However, it must be pointed out that the socialization process is not static or stereotype, but rather dynamic, as the needs of the organization changes. Employees must adapt to these new needs i.e. they must socialize to conform to these needs. Insipte of the endemic nature of socialization as an agent of organizational culture is more useful at the early stage of an employee?s career in the organization.

	Socialization and Mentoring

Mentoring - This is a process of forming and maintaining an intensive and lasting developing relationship between a senior person (the mentor) and junior person (the protégé). Mentoring as an specta of socialization is important in developing a high performance cultures by three basic ways:
 


i)	Mentoring contribute in creating a sense of oneness by promoting the acceptance of the organization core values.
ii)	It promotes a sense of mentoring
iii)	It increases interpersonal exchanges among organizational members.
-	Initiation
-	Cultivation
-	Separation
-	Re-definition

Initiation is a period six months to one year during which time relationships gets started and begins to have importance to both the mentor and the protégé.

Cultivation - This is a period of two – five years during whic h time the range of career and psychological functions provided, expanded to a maximum.

Separation - A period of six months – two years after a sign ificant change in the structural role relationship and/or in the emotional experience of the relationship.

Re-definition - An indefinite period after the separation phase, during which time the relationship is ended or takes on significantly different characteristics making it a more peer-like friendship.

Mentoring roles includes the following:

-	Respecting the confidentiality of the relationship and actively building trust.
-	Giving encouragement to the learner to progress and being enthusiastic about the relationship.
-	Supporting learner?s personal development and their learning ability
-	Building the confidence of learners.

4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit you have been able to see the use of culture in improving organizational status. It also treated the concept of organizational culture, its characteristics and functions.
 


5.0	SUMMARY

The unit has examined the concept of culture, socialization vis-à-vis culture and mentoring.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the concept of organizational culture why do organizations need it to succeed.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.).
th
Flippo, Edwin B. (1984).	Personnel Management (6	ed.). New York:
 


UNIT 4	MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Management Development Methods
	Formal Training/On-the Job Training
	Off the-Job Techniques
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading.

1.0	INTRODUCTION

The word manager has been used to mean people at different levels of hierarchy. Needless to say that their actions have significant impact on the performance of the part or whole of the organization. A worker may be considered a potential manger for the purpose of management development.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define management development
•	identify management knowledge and skills
•	list and explain various methods used in management development.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Definition

Management development is a systematic process of growth and development by which managers develop their abilities to manage. It is the result of not only participating in formal courses of instruction but also the actual job experience. It is concerned with the improving the performance of the managers by giving them opportunities for growth and development. It is also any planned effort to improve current or
 


future management performance. The role of the company in management development is to establish the programme and the developmental opportunities for its present and potential mangers.

Scope of Management Development

By scope is meant, the field management definition or area of coverage. The scope is to bridge the gap between present performance and the expected performance.

Here we have:

-	The command of basic facts
-	Relevant professional knowledge
-	Continuing sensitivity to events
-	Analytical, problem-solving, decision-making and judgment making skills
-	Social skills and abilities
-	Emotional resilience
-	Pro-acting – the inclination to solve problems be fore the occur.
-	Creativity
-	Mental Agility
-	Balanced learning habits and skills
-	Self-knowledge.

Management development is needed in order to keep the manager in possession of expertise so that he is wanting in skills and knowledge in any of the above – activities. This is how wide th e scope of management development needs are.

	Management Development Methods

There are mainly two types of techniques by which managers can acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes and make themselves competent managers. One is through formal training and the other is through on – the – job experiences.

	Formal Training/on–the Job Training

On the job training is of utmost importance as the real learning takes place only when the learner uses what he has learnt. But it should also be remembered that classroom training or pedagogical techniques have also got their own importance in gaining new knowledge, and learning techniques and broader concepts.
 


Learning is haphazard without theoretical background and learning can never be called true learning if it is just theory without practice. When on – the – job training is properly balanced with t he classroom training the real learning takes place.

Some of the techniques on – the – job techniques ar e:

Coaching – Here the trainee is placed under a particular s upervisor who acts as an instructor and teaches job knowledge and skills to the trainee. He tells them what he wants him to do, how it can be done and follows up while it is being done and corrects errors.

Coaching should be distinguished from counselling as counselling involves a discussion between the boss and his subordinates in areas concerned with man?s hopes, fears, emotions and be done correctly. Counselling demands considerable background and ability on the part of the counsellor. Coaching can be done through routine work, talking of some complex problems and giving then chance to participate in decision – making. Though the limitations lies in the fact that the individual cannot develop much beyond the limits of the superior.

Job – Rotation - This is the transferring of executives from job – to – job and from department–to–department in a systemat ic manner. The idea behind this technique is to give the manager the required diversified skills and a broader outlook, which are very important at the senior management levels. It is up to the management to provide a variety of job experiences for those judged to have the potential for higher ranks before they are promoted.

Job rotation increases the inter-departmental co-operation and reduces the monitory of work. It makes the executives in general management and does not allow them to confine themselves to their specialized field only.

Under Study - An “Understudy” is a person who is in training t o assume at a future time, the full responsibility of the position currently held by his superior. This method supplies the organization a person with as much of competence as the superior to fill his post which may fall vacant because of promotion, retirement or transfer.

An understanding maybe chosen by the department or its head. He will then teach what all his job involves and gives him a feel of what his job is. This understudy also learns the decision making, as his superior involves him in the discussion of daily operating problems as well as long-term problems. The leadership skills can also be taught by
 


assigning him the task of supervising two or three people of the department.

Multiple Management - Multiple management is a system in which permanent advisory committees of managers study problems of the company and make recommendations to higher management. It is also called Junior Board of Executives System. These Committees discuss the actual problems and different alternative solutions after which discussions are taken.

3.2.2	Off-The-Job Techniques	
Due to the fact that on – the – job techniques have	their own limitations
off- the – job techniques are considered important	to fill those gaps.
Some of the off – the – job techniques are:	
-	Case Study	
-	Incident Method	
-	Role Playing	
-	In Basket Method	
-	Business Game	
-	Sensitivity Training	
-	Simulation	
-	Grid Training	
-	Conferences	
-	Lectures	

Case Study: Here, cases are prepared on the basis of actual business situations that happened in various organizations. The trainees are given cases for discussing and deciding upon the case. Then they are asked to identify the apparent and hidden problems for which they have to suggest solutions.

Incident Method: This method was developed by Paul Pigors. It aims at developing the trainee in the areas of intellectual ability, practical judgment and social awareness. Incidents are prepared on the basis of actual situations which happened in different organizations. Each employee in the training group is asked to study the incident and to make decisions.

Role Playing: A problem situation is simulated by asking the participants to assume the role of a particular person in the situation. The participant interacts with other participants assuming different roles. Mental set of the role is described but no dialogue is provided.
 


Role playing gives the participants vicarious experiences which are of much use to understand people better. This method teaches human relations skills through actual practice the examples of role playing situation are a grievance discussions, employment interview, a sales presentation.

In Basket Method: Here the trainees are first given background information about a simulated company, its product, key personnel, various memoranda, requests and all data pertaining to the firm. Abilities that this kind of exercise develops are:

(1)	Situational judgement in being able to recall details, establishing priorities etc

(2)	Social sensitivity in establishing courtesy in written noted, scheduling meetings with personnel involved and explaining reasons for actions taken.

(3)	Willingness to make decisions and take action.

Business Game - Here trainees are divided into groups. Each has to discuss and aim at decisions concerning such subjects as production, pricing, research expenditure etc. assuming itself to be the management of a simulated firm. The other teams assume themselves as competitors and react to the decision. This immediate feedback helps to know the relative performance of each team. This promotes greater interaction among participants and gives them the experience in co-operative group processes. All this developed organizational ability, quickness of thinking, leadership and the ability to cope under stress.

Sensitivity Training - The main objectivity in this type of training is the development of awareness of and sensitivity to behavioural pattern of oneself and others. This development result in increased openness with others, greater concern for others, increased tolerance for individual differences and less ethnic prejudices.

Simulation - Under this technique the situation is duplicated in such a way that it carries a closer situation. The trainee experiences a feeling that he is actually encountering all those conditions. He is asked to assume a particular role in the circumstances and solve the problems by making a decision. He is immediately given a feedback of his performance.

Management Grid - It is a six-phase programme lasting from three – five years. It starts with upgrading management skills to group relations, goes into corporate planning, develops implementation
 


methods and ends with an evaluation phase. The end represents several possible leadership styles. Each style represents a different combination of two basic orientations – concern for people and concern for production.

Conferences - It is a meeting of several people to discuss the subject of common interest, better contribution from members that can be expected as each one builds upon ideas of other participants. This method is best suited when a problem has to be analyzed and examined from different view points. It helps the members develop their ability to modify their attitudes. Participants enjoy this method of learning as they get an opportunity to express their views.

Lectures - It is the simplest of all techniques. This is the best technique to present and explain series of facts, concepts and principles. The lecturer organizes the material and gives it to a group of trainees in the form of a talk.

4.0	CONCLUSION

In this unit we have provided you a number of definitions of management development. We have said that a number of reasons bordering on the gap between knowledge and skills that managers possess makes it imperative for undertaking management development initiatives. In this unit we availed you of various methods of management development.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit covered the definition, scope and methods of management development.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define Management Development and list the various methods of management development. Which can you recommend for Chief Executives of organizations?

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.
 


UNIT 5	DECISION-MAKING

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Enlarging Decision-Making Capacity
	Steps in Decision-Making
	Improving Decision-Making Ability of Executives
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Decision – making is the responsibility of the Exec utives. As an individual there are times that decisions are to be made, the same is applicable to organization.

Organizational decisions are mostly influenced by the awareness of the choices that are available to the organization and the knowledge of how to evaluate them. Decision – making, at whatever l evel an employee is found, is one of his most important functions.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

•	define decision-making
•	locate where decision-making capacity can be enlarged
•	list steps in decision-making process
•	recognise how decision-making ability can be improved.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Decision comes from the action word “deciding” whic h is freedom to choose from among alternatives without externally imposed coercion, freedom to conceive alternatives from which to choose. Decisions are made within boundaries set-up by many constraints most of which are,
 


the prevailing and unalterable features of the social, political, economic and technological environment.

The individual?s interpretation of the legal, moral, ethnical and religions limits to possible courses of action. The locality of the “culture” that has been inherited and learnt by the individual, at least to the extent that he cannot perceive that many possible course of action are unavailable to him as a result of his subconscious interpretation of “Custom”.

Here decision – making is seen as a creative and ju dicial. By being creative is meant that decision – making is an imag ination in visualizing alternative, which is to consider more, different and better alternatives. The import of this is that whereas it is possible to be hemmed in by cultural limits in considering alternatives amongst which to make a choice, it is also possible and it is creative to do so, to expand the alternatives and make better decisions.

By Decision – making being judicial is meant that D ecision – making juxtaposes values with facts and information available as well as the likely impact and consequences of what each alternative entails.

According to Smiddy, an authority on the concept of Decision – making, “Deciding is a matter of value, judgement and of wi sdom”. The quality of value judgement and of wisdom, the quality of value judgement will be improved to the extent that they are influenced by factual rather than erroneous or inaccurate information.

It is an acceptable fact that judgements used in deciding, are value judgements, and then effective deciding requires a well-developed sense of values, inherent in the individual decision-maker. One way to develop the sense of values of the individual in order to improve his decision- making ability and thus the quality of his decisions is to orient him towards the objectives of the organization for which he works. Each decision can be specifically defined as the responsibility of a specific position. The incumbent of this position is personally and individually responsible and accountable for the results and the consequences of the decisions so designated as his responsibilities.

	Enlarging Decision – Making Capacity

Where a decision is made the sole responsibility of an individual much as it is advisable to tap the knowledge of others both colleagues and subordinates, it is crucial to bear in mind that the final decisions is the responsibility of the one into whose hands it is entrusted.
 


-	Leaders make decisions and it is made known to the entire staff of the organization. Here the leader identifies a problem or realizes the existence of such an identified problem, ponders over possible decisions and chooses one. He at times takes no input from his subordinates.

-	The leader sells his decision. Here he keeps problems and decision making to himself. However rather than announce the decision solely made by him, he now sells the decision to his subordinate through soft persuasion especially, a democratic leader.

-	The leader presents his ideas and invites questions. Here decisions are already made and questions are invited by the subordinates for the sole purpose of clarification.

-	The leader presents a tentative decision subject to change.

Here the leader has thought over the problem and found the solution. The problem and the tentative solution are rendered for debate but the final decisions are the leaders.

-	The leader presents the problem, gets suggestion and then makes decision.

Here the leader comes up without a pre-concerned solution to the problem. He uses his group as a resource base to obtain answers. At the end however, he alone takes the decision.

-	The leader defines the limits and requests the groups to take a decision.

Here the leader passes to the group usually with himself as a member, the right to make decisions. Before doing this, he defines the problem and the boundaries within which the decision must be made.

-	The leader permits the group to make decision within the prescribed limits. Here the group has absolute freedom to identify and diagnose the problems, develop alternative procedures for solving it an deciding on the alternative to use. The executive, depending on the urgency surrounding the issue and the knowledge of his subordinates may decide to use, any of the enumerated styles in decision making.
 


However there is a need to a decentralized decision – making in the organization.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define “Decision-Making”

	Steps to Decision-Making

According to Peter Drunker, there are five steps in decision – making:

-	Defining the problem
-	Analyzing the problem
-	Developing alternative solutions
-	Deciding upon the solution
-	Converting the decision into effective action.

It is pertinent to state here that not all decision have to go through those five steps inorder for decisions to be made. Management scholars have divided decision–making into two broad categories:-

-	Programmes
-	Non- Programmed decisions.

Programmed decisions are those which deal with problems permitting well–defined search and choice procedures to be use d each time they occur. The problems giving rise to them, are repetitive and so solution can almost be fabricated.

But Non-programmed decisions on the other hand involves problems which are often new and highly ill-defined making it difficult to tell what factors are applicable for obtaining a desired solution. Normally for such problems, need arises to shift the focus of decision making upstairs.

	Improving Decision –Making Ability of Executive s

Some decision–making is a product of value judgemen t and depends too much on the individual and as individuals are gifted differently, then can decision-making ability be improved so that the executives can earn benefits.

One way which it can be learnt is picking the brain of successful decision- maker to catalogue the process he utilizes in so doing, such process can be studied, adopted and taught. However, this is not easy as many as good decision makers do not know how they were made.
 


Another way of improving decision making ability is making more of them.

The third way of improving in the quality of decisions in organizations rather than decision–making ability of individuals, is to drop those who are incapable of making decisions.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the topic decision–making. H ere the meaning and scope of decision–making in organization have b een given. You have also been told how it is not the responsibility of only those on top of organizational hierarchies to make decisions. You have also learnt how decision–making capacity can be enlarged by the “tapping” of the knowledge of colleagues and subordinates. You have also learnt how to increase the ability of decision–making.

5.0	SUMMARY

Decision–making is a critical function in any organ ization. It is a personnel function because it is one of the important things the employee does in organization and in respect of which he is given additional training and which also forms the basis for his performance appraisal.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define the term “decision-making”. What is a progr ammed and Non- programmed decision?

	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Smiddy, Harold F.	“Deciding” in HB Maynard Ed. Ibid .


MODULE 4

Unit 1	Ethics in Public Service Unit 2	Discipline and Grievances Unit 3	Conflict Management
Unit 4	Separation (Tenure and Turnover) Unit 5	Separation (Retirement)


UNIT 1	ETHICS IN PUBLIC SERVICE
 



CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Elements of Ethics in Practice
	Discipline
	Good Conduct
	Courtesy, Co-operation, Tact, Industry
	Attitude to Public funds
	Flexibility and Decision - Making
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Ethics is inherent in man. Ethics can be said to be an expected and acceptable mode of behaviour. This is why it is the concern of personnel management. Ethics belongs to the evolutionary stage of the study, of personnel management that is behavioural in outlook. This unit deals with what ethic is and the methods employed to get it ingrained in the both the public and private sector.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define ethics
•	identify its significance in organization
•	list attitudes which can be termed as good conduct.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Ethics has been defined as the code of moral principles and values that governs the behaviour of individuals or groups with respect to what is right or wrong.

The scope of ethics in organization covers both management and leadership. Under management ethics according to Joseph W. Weiss, “Business ethics is the art and discipline of apply ing ethical principles to
 


examine and solve complex moral dilemmas. Ethics in organization bothers on a moral way of behaviour that is expected in an organization. Issues bothering on employee conflicting interests, inappropriate gifts, sexual harassment, unauthorized payments and affirmative action issues.

Discussing the ethical dimensions of leadership Weiss says that leading effectively also means leading ethically and morally while businesses expand over geographic and cultural boundaries, question concerning the sense of right or wrong of leaders and followers in their business practices gain is importance.

Ethical decisions are not easy to take as the question of right or wrong is so much “person – dependent”. But however there ar e criteria that define the limits of ethical reasoning:

-	Ethical reasoning should be logical, assumption should be based on facts, and judgements made explicit.

-	Facts and evidence should be accurate, relevant and complete.

-	Standards used in one?s ethical reasoning should be consistent if not, there the standards should be modified.

The followings can be considered as ethical principle:

Ethical Relationship: Moral authority is based on individuals or cultural self-interests, customs or religions principles. An act is morally right if it serves one?s cultural self-interests, needs or standards.

Utilitarianism: A morally or ethically sound decision or policy is the one that is adjudged on the basis of cost – benefit analysis. The benefits exceed the cost of the majority of the people.

Rights: The principle of utilitarianism is based on the inalienable rights and entitlements of individuals or groups guaranteed to all in their pursuit of freedom of speech, choice happiness and self – respect. A manager who overlooks the rights of even one individual or group may jeopardize the implementation of a decision, policy or procedure.

Universalism: Here moral authority is based on the extent to which the intention of an act treats all persons as ends in themselves and with respect. This rule enjoins managers to give individuals unique treatment if their cases so demand and that they may not be treated as mere statistics.
 


Justice: Moral authority is based on the extent to which opportunity, wealth and burden are fairly distributed among all. Here fairness and equity govern the decision.

Justice has three components:

-	Procedural -	(How rules, procedures and the means of
distributing burden and wealth are determined).

-	Compensatory -(How people are compensated for injustices
done to them).

-	Distribution -(Does the crime committee equate
punishment given).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define Ethics. What are the components of Justice?

	Elements of Ethics in Practice

This is simply what constitutes ethical practices in organizations whether public or private.

(1)	Discipline- Here all workers both in the private and public sectors are enjoined to be disciplined and ensure that the interest of the service is paramount in whatever is done. It calls on all senior officers to fashion out codes of conduct which they themselves can and should comply with.

(2)	Good conduct and Ideas:

-	Loyalty -To serve the government with all loyalty and
to be adequately compensated.

-	Honesty -Civil servants should be honest in dealings
with the public and should seek for no gratification.

-	Courage - Courage for hard work

-	Courtesy - It requires the public employees to be polite
and courteous to both those in the service and the general public.

-	Cooperation - All public servants should work in harmony.
 



-	Tact -Tact means skillfulness in handling a
difficult situation without given offence to the people involved.

-	Industry - This means hard work.

-	Tidiness - The office environment should be made neat
and clean.

4.0	CONCLUSION

The topic of ethics has been explored. The question of doing right or wrong is highly personal in nature.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has done the following:

Given the definition of ethics state the two broad types – management and leadership in ethics, ethics being utilized in knowing if a decision, a policy or a procedure is right or wrong. It has given principles of ethics vis-à-vis its practice in the public service.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define ethics as a concept; why is it necessary in any given society.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Weiss, Joseph W (1996). Organizational Behaviour of Change, Managing, Diversity, Cross-cultural Dynamics and Ethics. Minneapolis Paul: West Publishing Company.

Federal Republic of Nigeria Civil Service Handbook. Federal Ministry of Establishment and Service Matters Lagos.
UNIT 2	DISCIPLINE AND GRIEVANCE

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Discipline
	Grievance
 


	Approaches to Discipline
	Disciplinary Procedure
	Types of Punishment
	Nature and causes of Grievance
	Pre-requisite of a Grievance Procedure
	Grievance Procedure
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Maintenance of harmonious human relation in an organization depends upon the promotion and maintenance of discipline. No organization can prosper without discipline. Discipline has been a matter of utmost concern for all organizations. Maintenance of effective discipline in an organization ensures the most economical and optimum utilization of various resources including human resources.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define disciplinary action
•	identify various types of methods and processes employed in disciplinary action
•	recognize different forms of indiscipline leading to disciplinary action
•	relate an offence to any appropriate disciplinary action.





	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Discipline refers to a condition or attitude, prevailing among the employees with respect to rules and regulations of an organization. Discipline in the broadest sense means orderliness, the opposite of confusion. It does mean a strict and technical observance of rigid rules and regulations. It simply means working, co-operating and behaving in
 


a normal and orderly way, as responsible person would expect an employee to do.

Discipline can also be defined as a force that prompts individuals or groups to observe the rules, regulations and procedures which are deemed to be necessary for the effective functioning of the organization. It is the orderly conduct of affairs by members of an organization, who agree to do necessary regulations because they desire to co-operate harmoniously in forwarding the end which the group has in view and willingly recognize that.

Webster?s dictionary gives three basic meaning of the word discipline:-

-	It is training that corrects moulds, strengthens or perfects.
-	It is control gained by enforcing obedience.
-	It is punishment or chastisement

This definition indicates the aspects of discipline vis Positive approach
Negative approach.

	Discipline

Discipline is positive if it helps in moulding out good behaviour and negative if such a disciplinary programmes forces and constraints the employees to obey orders and function in accordance with set rules and regulations through warning, penalties and other forms of punishment.

	Grievance

A grievance is a sign of the employee?s discontent with the job and nature. The employee has got certain aspirations or expectations which he thinks must be fulfilled by the organization, which he is working.

Grievance can be defined as any dissatisfaction or feeling of injustice in connection with one?s employment situation that is brought to the notice of the management. Flippo indicates that grievance as a type of discontent which must always be expressed. A grievance is usually more formal in character than a complaint. It can be valid or ridiculous and must grow out of something connected with company operations or policy. It must involve an interpretation or application of the provisions of the labour contract.

Grievance can also be defined as any discontent or dissatisfaction whether exposed or not, whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company which an employee thinks, believes or even feels to be unfair, unjust or inequitable.
 



The above definitions indicate that a grievance maybe factual or imaginary or disguised and it is a problem, whether expressed or not, valid or not. When an employee presents a problem, the grievance redressing authority has to analyze the problem, find out the root cause of the problem rather than viewing it from legal aspects and solve it, based on humanitarian approach. This approach of grievance redressal is known as clinical approach to grievance handling. Hence a grievance maybe viewed as a complex psychological phenomenon, calling for human rather than any procedure or legal action in its analysis and solution.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Distinguishe between Discipline and Grievance

	Approaches to Discipline

The different approaches to discipline include:

-	Human Relation Approach
-	Human Resources Approach
-	Group Discipline Approach
-	Leadership Approach
-	Judicial Approach

The employee is treated as human being and his acts of indiscipline will be dealt with from the new points of human values, aspirations, problems, needs, goals and behaviour etc.

Under human relations approach, the employee is helped to correct his deviations. The employee is treated as a resource and the acts of indiscipline are dealt with considering the failures in the areas of development, maintenance and utilization of human resources under human resource approach.

The group as a whole sets the standards of discipline, and punishments for the deviation. The individual employees are awarded punishment for their violation under the group discipline approach. Every superior administers the rules of discipline and guides, trains and controls the subordinates regarding disciplinary rules under the leadership approach.

	Disciplinary Procedure

These are the following procedures used in the discipline of staff in an organization.
 



-	Consideration of the explanation, show-cause notice, giving the employee another chance to explain
-	Holding full fledge enquiry
-	Considering the enquiry proceedings
-	Follow – up

	Types of Punishment

When a diligent employee is going to be punished, the type of punishment should be commensurate with the severity of the omission or misconduct. Different types of punishments resulting from various types of omissions or misconducts are as follows:

- Oral warnings - This is an oral reprimand given by a super- ordinate or superior officer to a subordinate.

-	Written warnings - Whenever oral warnings fail to achieve the desired behaviour on the part of the employee, written warnings, which are the first formal state of progressive discipline maybe
recorded to written warnings are also referred to as “pink steps” which indicate that certain rights would be withdrawn incase the employee continues his omission or misconduct.

-	Loss of privileges and fines.
-	Future suspension
-	Withholding of increments
-	Demotion
-	Termination of appointment which occur in two ways

(1)	Discharge
(2)	Dismissal



	Nature and Causes of Grievance

A grievance is a problem submitted by an employee which likely to affect the terms and conditions of employment of one worker or several workers. If a problem is related to and endorsed by all or majority of employees or if a trade union submits a problem as a general claim, it falls outside the scope of grievance procedure and generally comes under the preview of collective bargaining. Thus an issue is under in scope or general in nature, it will be outside the grievance machinery.
 


A grievance has a narrower perspective, it is concerned with the interpretation of a contract or award as concerned to an individual or a few employees of different types. As such, policy issues do not fall within the scope of the grievance machinery.

Causes of grievance are related to interpretation of all personnel policies, issues are complaints affecting one or more individual worker in respect of their wage payments, overtime, leave, transfer, promotion, seniority, work assignments and discharge. Also the causes of grievance include the interpretation of areas like placement, allowances, utilization, medical benefits, housing facilities, and loan grants, condition of work, seniority and safety measures.

	Pre-Requisite of a Grievance Procedure

The efficiency of a grievance procedure depends upon the fulfillment of certain pre-requisites. They are as follows:

-	Conformity with prevailing legislation and while designing the grievance procedure due consideration must be given to the existing statutory provisions.

-	Clarity - There should be clarity regarding each and every aspect of the grievance procedure. An aggrieved employee must be informed about the purpose to whom a representation can be made. The form of submission (written or oral), the time limit for the redressal of grievance. Similarly, the redressing authority should be very clear about what is expected from him. What measures he can take, the limits within which he should resort to an action.

-	Simplicity - The grievance procedure should be simple. Every employee must understand different stages of the procedure, the forms to be filled, the very purpose of the procedure.

-	Promptness – The promptness with which a grievance is processed adds further to the success of the grievance. The procedure should aim at rapid disposal of the grievance.

-	Training - The success of the procedure also depends upon imparting training to the superiors and union representatives in handling grievance.

-	Follow - up - The successful working of a grievance procedure depends upon a proper follow-up by the personnel department. The department should periodically review the procedure and
 


introduce the essential structural changes making it more effective.

	Grievance Procedure

First of all the complaints, should be tabled before the appropriate authority. If there is no favourable response from the departmental head, the worker can resort to the grievance committee which comprises of the representatives of employers and employees. This committee shall communicate its recommendations to the manager within seven days of the grievance reaching it. If there are unanimous decisions, these shall be implemented by the management. But where there is no unanimous decision, the union and the management may refer the grievance to a voluntary arbitration within nine (9) weeks of receipt of management decision by the worker.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the concept of discipline and grievance. The reward that disciplinary action gives is penalty or punishment. It is not palatable reward but it is a necessary part of organizational life known to be bitter, the most un-offensive way it can be given will aid its acceptance and lead faster to its aim which is behaviour reformation.

5.0	SUMMARY

The unit has explored the concept of discipline and grievance. It has examined also the approaches to discipline, disciplinary procedures, types of punishment and the nature and causes of grievance.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Why should there be grievance procedure in any organization


7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING	th
Flippo Edwin B. (1984). Personnel Management. (6    ed.). New York:
 
















































UNIT 3	CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition
	Discovery of Conflict of Interest
	Types of Conflicts
	Conflict Resolution/Management
 


4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

This unit treats a negative aspect of inter-personal and inter-group relations in an organization which is conflicts and its management. It defines what conflict is, how dysfunctional it could be and how it can be managed or resolved. A number of management theorists see it as not necessary, completely negative and what bad it constitutes and what good it could be would be examined here.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

•	define Conflict
•	list a number of conflict situations
•	manage conflicting situation to prevent it getting worse
•	resolve conflicts.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Conflict is a condition that arises when two or more individuals or groups perceive their own interests as being challenged by others and when strong feelings can be aroused.

According to Etzioni, conflicts though not a definition states that, supervisors, organizational units, or staff division often come into conflict with one another either because of the principles that divide labour among them and prescribe their relations as not clear or because the prescribed rules are being adhered to by some but not by others or because differences or interest, view point, or personalities need to be reconciled.

Conflicts can further be defined as any discontent or dissatisfaction that affects organizational performance. As such, it can be stated or unvoiced, written or oral, legitimate or ridiculous. The only major restriction in this definition is that the discontent must affect worker performance. Despite the best of management practices in acting and communicating conflicts, between employees and the organization will occur. A total absence of conflict would be unbelievable, boring and a strong indication that such conflicts are being suppressed.
 



	Discovery of Conflicts Interest

For many reasons, there is now more communication in organization than before the human relation movement as well as the activities of labour unions have led to this development.

These are some of the ways that conflict is discovered:

Direct Observation: Here a good supervisor knows the customary behaviour of subordinates and when significant changes in that behaviour occur, he or she is concerned with possible motives, observations which may show a decline. Also such statistics as grievance rates, accident rates, request for transfer, resignations and disciplinary cases may reveal that an unspoken conflicts exists.

Suggestion Box: Here the staff is free to submit their complaints anonymously.

Open Door Policy: This is where the executives allow all calibre of staff to interact with them freely. Most of times this does is not actually happen as the executives are “too busy” to give the junior staff such audience. But where it actually works, they are capable of detecting and removing grievances even before they mature.

Exit Interview: This is an interview granted by a departing employee. If the truth can be told, it is a good source of discovering the causes of dissatisfaction in organizations.

The Ombudsman: This is an additional ear for the Chief Executive. Although he is meant to receive and resolve grievance, the use it serves in this section for discovering of conflicts. Complaints taken to him which an employee is not able to take to his direct boss serves as a source of data for types and prevalence of conflicts in the organization.

Group Meeting: Here some Chief Executives or supervisors do solicit or complaints publicly at group meetings. At such meetings individuals who cannot complain on their own pick courage and reveal hidden conflicts. Some Executives use this soliciting method in individual interviews with present employees to discover sources of difficulty.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define Conflicts. List four (4) ways which you would use to discover the existence of conflicts in an organization.
 


	Types of Conflicts

There are five types of conflict.

Structural: It occurs because of cross functional departmental differences over goals, time horizons, rewards, authority, line and staff activities, status and resources. Conflict can occur between staff and line position over status and authority differences.

Intra Personal: This occurs within an individual. This type of conflict is divided into three:

-	Intra-role Conflict
-	Inter role Conflict
-	Person role Conflict

Intra role Conflict refers to a situation where a person receives conflicting information from others concerning a particular role.

The Inter role conflict occur when an individual experiences pressure over several roles in the job or life; e.g. a single mother that is also working.

The third type, the person-role conflict occurs when a person, may experience conflict over being pressured to follow standards other than his own.

Inter-Personal Conflict: This type of conflicts occurs between two or more individual. One of the causes of this type of conflict is when a person is difficult. Some people are hostile – and aggressive in nature. The second type is the “know it all” which is subdi vided into the “Bulldozers and “Balloons”

Bulldozers are people who do know a subject competently but use their competency to bully others.
Balloons on the other hand are people who do not know a subject well and bluff instead.

Inter-Group Conflict: This occurs as a result of disagreement over any number of substantive issues. Also basic differences in group structures can often be sources of pressure between groups.

Inter-Organization Conflict: This occurs between enterprise and External Stakeholders Large Scale Strikes e.g. The one between ASSU
– Academic Staff Union of Universities and the Federal Government of Nigeria.
 



	Conflict Resolution Management

There are five types of conflict management.

Competing: This is used when quick decision action is vital e.g. emergencies.

On important issues where unpopular action need implementing. On issues vital to company welfare when an individual knows he or she is right. And against people who take advantage of non-competitive behaviour.

Collaborating: To find an integrative solution when both sets of concern are too important to be compromised when the objective is to learn, to merge insights from people with different perspectives. To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into consensus. To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.

Compromising: When the goals are important, but not worth the effort or potential description of more assertive modes when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals. To achieve temporary settlement to complex issues. To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure. And as a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful.

Avoiding: this is used when an issue is stalled, or there are more important issues at hand. When there is a perception of no chance of satisfying the aggrieved parties when potential description inter-weights the benefits of resolution. To let people cool down and regain perspective and when gathering information supersedes immediate desires and when others can resolve the conflict more effectively.

Accommodating: When you find you are wrong to allow a better position to be heard, learnt and to show your reasonableness. When issues are more important to others than yourself. To build social credits for later issues. To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing when harmony and stability are especially important to allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit has given a number of definitions of conflicts, ways of detecting the existence of a conflict, the various types of conflicts and a scheme for the management of conflicts.
 


5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has taken a fairly comprehensive look at conflict and conflict management. It has also offered you definition and methods/procedures in recognizing conflicts and managing them.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain two ways of discovering conflicts, two types of conflicts and two ways of managing conflicts.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole, G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST Lelts Educational.


















UNIT 4	SEPARATION (TENURE AND TURNOVER)

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Tenure
	Turnover
	The Control of Turnover
 


4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Tenure has to do with the security of employment whilst turnover is the departure from employment. This unit says what each concept means and how being at the opposite ends, nonetheless are treated together.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define tenure and turnover
•	identify various types of tenure
•	list various reasons and types of turnover
•	recognize the methods of controlling turnover.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

	Tenure

Tenure is defined as the job characteristic that spells out the conditions and length of time that an employee holds all else being equal.

The scope of tenure is decided by a number of types of appointment that are available in a particular service.

Trainee/Pupil:“When a candidate for employment requires additiona l professional experience before he can be regarded as fully qualified for appointment to a specific post, he maybe appointed as a trainee or pupil for a normal service for two years in the post. In this respect the tenure of the employee is two years and the employee is bound by a condition for an additional professional qualification.

Probation: Except where transfers are involved, all new entrants to the service are on probation for the first two years within this period, their performances are under observation and appraisal reports are being submitted on them. If their performances are judged unsatisfactory there could be a discharge which is turnover at the end of the second year.
 


Contract Appointment: This is an appointment for a given and stated period of time. It does not attract pension. Except it is extended, contract appointments end on the period stated in the appointment.

Pensionable Appointments: These are full-term appointments which employees have, which enable them to have a career.

	Turnover

Turnover is defined as the movement into and out of an organization by the workforce. Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. There is this relationship between tenure and turnover. Tenure has consistently be found to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.

	The Significance of Turnover

Turnover is an index of stability of the workforce in an organization and that an excessive movement is undesirable and expensive. Where an employee leaves an organization the following costs are incurred:

-	Hiring Cost, involving time and facilities for recruitments, interviewing examining and replacement.

-	Training costs, involving the time of the supervisor, personnel department and trainee.

-	The pay of a learner is in excess of what is produced.

-	Accident rate of new employees are always higher.

-	Loss of production between separation of the old employee and the replacement the new.

-	Production equipment is not of being fully utilized during the turnover interval and the training period.

-	Scrape and wastes rates climb when new employees are involved.

-	Overtime pay may result from an exercise number of separations causing trouble in meeting contract delivery dates.

The turnover rate should provide a guide to:

-	Trouble areas in the organization
 


-	The relation of the various types of separation to:

(a)	Types of employment
(b)	Salary Classes
(c)	Length of Service
(d)	Performance

-	Compatibility of employment condition in the several establishments or in the headquarters as compared to the field service.

-	Detects in the whole employment process, but particularly in the policies affecting recruitment, selection, placement and compensation.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define turnover and tenure as a concept in personnel management.

3.1.3 The Control of Turnover

The problem of controlling turnover maybe divided into two parts: First determining the causes of the various types of separation
Second, adjusting and developing the personnel programme in the light of the identified causes.

One of the methods for determining, the causes of turnover is the exit interview. This is the process of interviewing any employee to find out his reason for leaving, the organization. Exit interview is a means for smoothing out misunderstanding and preventing avoidable separations. For if the reason for departure is known, steps can be taken to prevent it. Also if the reason for departure is known even if it is too late to do something about the departing employee, that reason can be worked on so that it ceases to be a reason for the departure of other employees in future.
The second  phase in  the process  of controlling turnover consists  in making adjustment in employment conditions and policies which have been suggested by the analysis of the reasons of the turnover.

Such adjustments will vary as the numbers of reasons for departures from organizations vary. Employment dissatisfaction may stem from:

-	Failure to fit the man to the jobs which implies unsatisfactory recruitment, selection and placement procedures.

-	Undesirable employment condition.
 



But nevertheless each cause should be properly examined inorder to prevent excessive turnover.

4.0	CONCLUSION

Turnover and tenure are critical aspects of personnel management. Tenure relates to the conditions of employment while turnover is the exit from an organization. If the conditions of employment are conducive there would be a low rate of labour turnover, but if it is in the contrary, labour turnover rate would be very high.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit has explained the various aspects of tenure and turnover. It has given the definition of the concepts and listed and explained the various types of employment, the various reasons for turnover and given methods for the control of the turnover.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Tenure relates to entry into the service while turnover is exit from the service – Relate one to another.

7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
th
Flippo, Edwin B. (1984). Personnel Management (6	ed.). New York:







UNIT 5	SEPARATION- RETIREMENT

CONTENTS

1.0	Introduction
2.0	Objectives
	Main Content
	Definition and Scope
	Types of Retirement
	Mandatory/Voluntary Retirement
	Pension and Gratuity
 


	Contributory versus Non-Contributory Pensions
	Qualifying Periods for Pensions
4.0	Conclusion
5.0	Summary
6.0	Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0	References/Further Reading

1.0	INTRODUCTION

Retirement is a terminal movement out of the organization and it is age- related. It may also be related to factors such as sickness and reduction in capacity.

2.0	OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

•	define Retirement
•	distinguished between retirements from other “movem ents out” of service
•	explain causes that lead to retirement
•	identify types of retirement
•	identify programs instituted to benefit those in retirement.

	MAIN CONTENT

	Definition and Scope

Retirement can be defined as a time when an employee reaches the end of his working life. The most important factor in retirement is the time factor. So time dependent is retirement. It is that governments pre- determine the span of a working life for employees.

The span of working life covers the time a man enters work until the age of 65 years and for a woman until the age of 60 years. In Nigeria the time limit is non-gender discriminatory. It is rather profession discriminatory. Judges and University Lecturers are exempted from the 65 years compulsory retirement age. This statutory retirement age is mandated by law that men and women should retire at the age of 65 years or 35 years in service.

	Types of Retirement

There are two main types of retirement:
 


-	Mandatory
-	Voluntary

	Mandatory/Voluntary Retirement

Mandatory Retirement Age: In the light of the life expectancy of modern times the mandatory retirement age is 65 years

Many organizational managers have maintained that compulsory retirement at a fixed age for all is beneficial. The following are the reasons given:

-	It is simple to administer with no implications to prove that the older employee no longer meets the job requirements.

-	Openings are created to which younger employees can advance.

-	Human Resources planning are facilitated when retirement schedules are known.

-	Graceful exits are provided for employees who are no longer qualified in as much as the firm will wait out the final few years of declining productivity.

-	It stimulates employees to make plans for retirement in advance of a known date.

Arguments against a fixed and compulsory retirement age are also plausible and rife. The main one is that it deprives individuals of a right to choose and fails to realize that individuals vary in talents. Also in terms of productivity energy and creativity, people age at different rates. According to Flippo forced retirements would result in insignificant losses of real talents.

Perhaps the answer to the question of retirement tied to age is to treat each case on its own merit. Here some people can retire at the sixty (60) while others can still make a valuable contribution beyond the age of seventy (70). This seems to be in line in respect to academic staff in Nigerian Universities who were required to retire at the age of sixty-five
(65)	but the new thinking is that each University is to decide when academics of the rank of Associate Professor and above are to retire. The yardstick for retirement in case is now to be productivity rather than chronology.

In Nigeria where the retirement age is now for Civil Servant (60 years) the pension wage bill has become disturbingly high. The knowledge,
 


skills and talents outside the service are likely to be superior to and more numerous than what is in service.

The implication of how retirement age is that rather than retire at an advanced age into idleness despondency and usually early death, today?s retired peoples corps is vibrant, healthy and agile group that go in for other jobs and are virtually collecting double salary, i.e. Pension and the new salary.

Voluntary retirement is when a staff who is not up to the 65 years mandatory retirement age wishes to disengaged from the service. In Nigeria an employee under the pensionable service has an option to retire voluntarily at any age from 45 years to 60 years. But at the age of 60 years or 35 years in service however, he has to retire mandatorily.

	Pension and Gratuity

	Contributory and Non-contributory Pensions

In some organizations employees are made to contribute to their pension scheme. However even when they are not ostensibly made to contribute. It is not unconceivable that they do contribute. Even under the so-called non-contributory systems, although the employing agency presumably bears the entire burden, it may in part be borne by employees through longer salaries. The contributory pension scheme has the following advantages:

-	It is easier to establish because the burden is divided.

-	It checks extravagant demands on the part of the employees since it is clear that a part of the cost would be borne by themselves.

The employee accepts a joint responsibility to fund a scheme which plans for the depletion of his faculty in the interest of the organization as well as themselves

In organization where there exists a qualifying period for the enjoyment of a pension, a contributory scheme gives the employee his own portion of the contribution even if he has not attained the qualifying year. What this entails is that there is no period of departure of the employee which sends him out empty-handed.

	Qualifying Periods for Pensions

Some organizations stipulate the number of years an employee is expected to have served before he is entitled to a pension or gratuity.
 



This is most common under the non-contributory schemes. In Nigeria you qualify for pension after 15 years of Service and gratuity is 10 years though it has further been reduced to 10 and 5 years in recent times. The implications of this action is that it now facilitates earlier departure from the service. But on the contrary, if the service or any particularly organization desires to keep his employees longer in its employment, it could do so by increasing the qualifying period for pensions and gratuities for its staff.

4.0	CONCLUSION

This unit examined retirements, pensions and gratuities. Retirements are meant to the period of rest because they come after full expenditure of an employee?s faculties and strength on job. However, depending upon the policy in operation in an organization or service, employees may find themselves in retirement but with their faculties and strength intact because the retirement is on the lowside.

5.0	SUMMARY

This unit covered the topic of retirements in all its ramification and also covered the issues of pensions and gratuities.

6.0	TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Define Retirement. Discuss the provisions made that should make it worth the while.



7.0	REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Cole G. A. (1997). Personnel Management Theory and Practice (4th ed.). London: ELST with Letts Educational.
th
Flippo, Edwin B. (1984). Personnel Management (6	ed.). New York:

December 22, 2025 4:22 PM